We will argue that recent assessments by the IPCC and IPBES, and a combined IPBES/IPCC assessment, have contributed new insights and information that may significantly change the way that we approach conservation planning and implementation globally, particularly in southern African settings. Deeper insights into the vulnerability and resilience of biodiversity have emerged as a result of greater understanding of paleo-ecological and paleoclimatic insights into the evolution of modern floras and faunas in southern Africa, and their potential natural adaptation to a cooler, less productive biosphere. This post-Miocene evolutionary history may enhance the vulnerability of these ecological systems to human-induced climate change, thus adding urgency to the need to mitigate climate change to reduce biodiversity risks. A new appreciation for the value of biodiversity and ecosystems in the carbon cycle and for climate change adaptation has seen the development of the concept of Nature-Based Solutions. This is potentially important for driving investments in conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems but runs the risk of shifting the mitigation burden from anthropogenic emissions reductions. Over-investment in ecologically questionable carbon dioxide removal schemes, such as mass afforestation, are also risks for conservation and ecosystem services, especially in Africa. Most importantly, the prospect of a temporary global warming temperature overshoot and return scenario offers new opportunities for bounded conservation response planning. This is a potential game-changing prospect for long-term conservation practice.

Community-based wildlife enterprises have been implemented for over three decades in Southern Africa. However, the success of the enterprises has been questioned in terms of achieving the intended goals of conservation and improved livelihoods. This paper, therefore, examines the underlying factors that ensure the success of wildlife enterprises in Southern Africa. It focuses on international or domestic tourism, hunting, breeding and live sales, game meat and other animal products. The paper further explores the following: key lessons required in terms of institutional and contractual arrangements to make community-based enterprises work, marketing of wildlife projects, access to finance for community-based tourism enterprises, and the community-based initiatives that are at risk if trophy hunting is banned etc. The overriding critical issues discussed include Government plans and proper partnerships with the private sector. The study is qualitative and uses the socio-ecological framework to guide the study, as well as interviews and secondary data sources. Results indicate that the wildlife-based tourism sector requires a business management model that allows partnership and collaboration between the private sector and communities, preferably the Community‐Private Partnership model. This approach allows for the establishment of Joint Venture Partnerships (JVPs) between the community and private sector. When a JVP is in place, it becomes feasible to undertake the following: marketing of tourism products (e.g. hunting, breeding and live sales, photographic activities, sale of animal products etc.) to both the domestic and international market, and access finance from government managed financial institutions and commercial banks etc. Secondly, communities require an enabling environment in the form of policy and a regulatory framework that guides a process of community mobilisation to an effective community-run enterprise. The paper concludes that a based socio-ecological framework is the ideal guide for community-based wildlife-based tourism enterprises, human well-being, and conservation. The wildlife-based tourism sector is a sustainable land use option with the potential to achieve wildlife conservation and human well-being.

Public participation is a well-recognised principle underpinning democratic governance and is central to South Africa's constitutional democracy. It promotes participatory decision-making, openness, transparency, and accountability. It is similarly a keystone of environmental governance, with the country's framework of environmental law, the National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998), expressly promoting the following as core principles: the effective and equitable participation of all interested and affected parties; the need to ensure the participation by vulnerable and disadvantaged persons; and the importance of taking into account the interests, needs and values of all interested and affected parties including traditional and ordinary knowledge. Consequently, the majority of South Africa's environmental laws, including those of relevance to the conservation community, entrench public consultation requirements within decision-making processes. This does not, however, always mean that the legal prescripts are adhered to, with the judiciary often being called upon to intervene where they are not. Key lessons can be drawn from three cases brought before the judiciary in the last year regarding what constitutes effective and equitable public consultation, both in the context of legal reform and decision-making processes. These lessons relate to who should be consulted, when, and how. These cases are the Federation of South African Fly Fishers case, the Sustaining the Wild Coast case, and the Adams case, all dealing with conservation issues. This paper reviews these cases, highlights the key lessons, and reflects on their relevance to the conservation community, both those who regulate and those who are regulated.

The Western Cape State of Conservation Report 2021 is the second of a series of new annual reports that responds to the urgency of the global biodiversity crisis by providing an up-to-date snapshot of the status of species and ecosystems at a provincial level. Given the high levels of endemism, it is important to keep tabs on trends, particularly in relation to threat status and habitat loss. The report also features conservation tools and strategies. Annual State of Conservation Reports feeds into the provincial State of Biodiversity Report, which is produced every five years. Responses to more pervasive cross-cutting themes such as climate change and biodiversity crime are also provided. Biodiversity crime is a concern, and the report provides an overview of the illegal, large-scale removal of fauna and flora and CapeNature's active role in combatting this scourge. In the Western Cape, international syndicates typically target the arid Karoo areas where succulent plants and the charismatic armadillo lizards are poached for sale to overseas collectors and the pet trade. Gains and progress are celebrated, particularly in the targeted expansion of the conservation estate, and updated statistics are provided for the Western Cape Conservation Estate.

CapeNature is proud to present the draft Western Cape Protected Area Expansion Strategy (WC PAES) for the 2021–2025 period. Habitat loss, climate change, and degradation are among the most pressing threats to biodiversity globally. This is equally true for the Greater Cape Floristic Region, the world's smallest floristic region and a global biodiversity hotspot. A strong network of private and state-protected areas has proved to be an important mechanism to conserve biodiversity and improve land management. The WC PAES is aligned with the South African National Protected Area Expansion Strategy, the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act No. 53 of 2007) and the CapeNature Strategic Plan 2021–2025. The identification of priority areas for the protection of biodiversity is informed by the Western Cape Biodiversity Spatial Plan. CapeNature is mandated to conserve the valuable and unique biodiversity of the Western Cape on behalf of the people of the region, the nation, and the international community. The existing protected area network provides extensive protection to mountain catchments and encompasses over 60% of South Africa's Strategic Water Source Areas which are located within the province. However, the historic focus on mountains has left lowland areas under-protected, with 20% of lowland vegetation types not protected at all. The updated strategy addresses the need to urgently protect priority threatened ecosystems. To support functional ecological processes and climate change adaptation, CapeNature implements a landscape-scale conservation approach. The emphasis is moving from protected area-centric conservation to bridging divisions between geographies, jurisdictions, sectors, and cultures to safeguard ecological, cultural, and economic benefits for all. This approach enables a stronger focus on strategic partnerships with key stakeholders such as local municipalities, provincial and national departments, NGOs, other conservation agencies, landowners, and communities.

Bioregional plans were developed according to the National Environment Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004) for five districts within the Limpopo Province. Biodiversity in the province is continuously under threat by development, mining, and other activities. Little or no means exist to prevent developments that are incompatible with the sensitivity of the area. The purpose of a bioregional plan is to effectively manage and protect biodiversity. It was decided that since bioregional plans inform land-use planning, environmental authorisations, and natural resource management outside of protected areas, it would be a more effective tool to protect biodiversity. The plans were developed according to the "Guideline regarding the determination of bioregions", as published in the Government Gazette No. 32006 of March 2009. A map of critical biodiversity areas and land-use management guidelines are products of a bioregional plan and were developed for Waterberg, Mopani, Vhembe, Capricorn, and Sekhukhune districts. Four of the five districts have been gazetted as bioregions, and the plans are used by the environmental impact assessment section and spatial and land-use planners of municipalities to inform land-use decisions. The plans are also used by several directorates within the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (LEDET). The Directorate of Protected Area Management uses critical biodiversity maps to assist with protected area expansion and the Limpopo Province Stewardship Programme. So far, the plans have prevented several developments and activities in critical biodiversity areas, including proposed prospecting that was cancelled after landowners implemented the bioregional plan. Unfortunately, communities and private and public entities are not all aware of existing bioregional plans and the implementation and benefits thereof. To address this issue, LEDET has embarked on a programme of presenting the information at municipal environmental forums.

The recognising, assessing, and reporting of "Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures" (OECMs) in the Western Cape province of South Africa is a project that has been underway for a year, and we look forward to sharing some findings. The draft targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework have indicated that a new area-based target to replace Aichi Target 11 will aim to see 30% of the world's marine, freshwater, and terrestrial surface conserved by 2030. This will be achieved through the protection of the network of protected areas and the expansion of the conservation estate through an identified ecologically representative and well-connected network of OECMs. OECMs are a conservation designation for areas that are achieving long-term, effective in-situ conservation of biodiversity outside of protected areas. They will be a crucial mechanism for South Africa and the global community to achieve the new CBD 2030 Target 2. The identification of OECMs in South Africa will require both spatial planning and in-field assessments that will likely align strongly with the expansion of the biodiversity stewardship mechanism to ensure the safeguarding of potential OECMs in the future. BirdLife SA, in collaboration with Conservation Outcomes, CapeNature, and the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment, with support from the WWF Nedbank Green Trust, has commenced the first assessment of OECMs in the Western Cape. The aim has been to spatially identify and assess the network of potential OECMs as a means of quantifying the capacity and resource requirements needed to effectively report on OECMs at a provincial scale. This project forms an important case study for other provincial assessments of OECMs in South Africa and will lay the foundation for national uptake of the OECM concept to enable South Africa to report on their full conservation estate to the World Protected Area Commission as a signatory of the CBD.

South Africa's legislative competence for nature conservation is shared between national and provincial levels of government due to the provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Commonly referred to as the 9+1, this approach was found by the High-level Panel of Experts for the review of policies, legislation, and practices on matters of elephant, lion, leopard and rhinoceros to "create a plethora of conservation/biodiversity-related legislation" which is "selectively applied in different geographical areas." National laws have progressed post-1994, informed by international standards included in multilateral environmental agreements, while provincial laws remain largely rigid to their pre-1994 framework. In 2021 the Endangered Wildlife Trust's Wildlife and Law Project undertook a comprehensive review of the current provincial conservation laws as at April 2022. Several challenges and limitations were identified, including inconsistent and contradicting provisions and a range of laws which do not reflect constitutional values or globally accepted conservation standards. Furthermore, provincial laws often duplicate aspects already regulated in national law and are dated, poorly drafted, ambiguous, and vague in their conservation approach. Here we show the impact of South Africa's 9+1 system of law relating to nature conservation and provide key recommendations to strengthen the legal framework in South Africa as it relates to nature conservation in provincial law.

The Important Plant Areas (IPA) project is a global initiative that aims to identify, monitor, and protect the best sites for wild botanical species and their natural habitats using standardized criteria. The identification of IPAs is a valuable resource for nations to ascertain their degree of progress in satisfying Target 5 of the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). Target 5 of the GSPC is in alignment with Target 5 of South Africa's Strategy for Plant Conservation, and thus a priority for the country to demonstrate our commitment to the protection of South Africa's flora. IPAs are key sites for plant conservation containing a high number of threatened plant species, threatened vegetation types, species with great cultural and socio-economic significance, as well as those sites with exceptional botanical richness. The IPA sites identified are being used to prioritize botanical conservation activities conducted by the Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers Programme and the Botanical Society of South Africa. The country's IPAs occur in areas with a high concentration of threatened plants and threatened vegetation. Many of the identified IPA sites overlap with the formally protected and/or partially protected areas within the country, however, a significant proportion remains not protected. This presentation demonstrates South Africa's IPAs and features conservation recommendations

For decades, increasing evidence demonstrates that chemical pollution leads to deleterious effects on humans, aquatic lifeforms, and wildlife - with local to global implications. As a result, chemical pollution is an aspect of global concern and considered among the leading threats to human and wildlife health and ecosystems, besides other drivers of global change (planetary challenges) that include climate change, habitat loss, and diminishing freshwater resources. For conservation to achieve the ultimate goal of improving quality of life and providing ecosystem services, it is increasingly essential to protect biodiversity integrity. This paper explores the role of chemical stressors – in combination with other abiotic and biotic stressors – on biodiversity integrity. Further, it discusses the existential need for effective chemical pollution management in relation to ecological conservation, as society navigates to achieve a balance between deriving chemicals' societal and economic benefits and conserving ecological integrity. The presentation will close with an outline of tools that can promote targeted mitigation and proactive approaches to preserve biodiversity diversity - with specific reference to aiding improved chemical management.

The Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) uses pesticides for invasive alien species control through its amended pesticide policy. It utilises a hierarchy of control (HOC) and the Global Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals to choose the most appropriate pesticide in local conditions. This aims to safeguard both pesticide operators' health and protect the environment by using the least harmful pesticides. The DFFE developed mechanisms to implement environmental and social risk assessments (ESRA) before choosing the pesticide to use in local conditions, ensuring that the pesticide is also compliant with the Hazardous Chemical Agents Regulations promulgated in March 2021. A process of substitution and elimination was followed to remove all highly hazardous pesticides from the policy and use. DFFE is now embarking on the next step of engineering controls as personal protective equipment is the least precautionary step in the HOC as it provides the least amount of protection against pesticide exposure. The environmental fate and ecotoxicity of the pesticides need to be taken into account as part of the ESRA process to provide environmental and ecosystem protection, ensuring proper ecosystem functioning. The reduction of pesticides in the environment will benefit ecosystem services, thereby protecting livelihoods for future generations.

It is understood that sustained long-term business success in the eco-tourism industry is inextricably linked to operators' performance in terms of compliance with environmental legal and best practice requirements. This is especially relevant when considering luxury safari lodges. These lodges are typically high-cost, low-volume accommodation establishments that offer tourists a combination of spectacular experiences with comfortable levels of hospitality, cuisine, and accommodation. This paper aims to evaluate the environmental performance of 12 selected luxury safari lodges within a world-renowned privately protected area. The lodges are evaluated along a performance pathway from legal compliance to best practice. We achieve this aim by adapting the 'sustainability journey conceptual framework' of Willard (2005) that describes five phases of progression along a business performance pathway. Key performance areas were identified, together with 65 key performance indicators (KPIs) covering four management aspects, namely, water, waste, energy, and infrastructure development. The evaluation score was awarded per KPI and uses the symbols A (meets legal or best practice requirements) to D (does not meet legal or best practice requirements). The results show that water management (30As, 53Bs, 48Cs, 136Ds) scored poorly, whilst energy management (9As, 12Bs, 28Cs and 16Ds) fared slightly better. In particular, legal compliance in terms of water management was weak, whilst energy technology alternatives have not been fully considered. Overall performance in relation to waste (29As, 33Bs, 30Cs and 9Ds) and infrastructure development (97As, 81Bs, 42Cs and 29Ds) fared the best, although challenges remain in terms of waste minimisation and responsible disposal. Results suggest that environmental performance is not linear, progressing from legal compliance to best practice adoption and implementation, as suggested by the literature. This is illustrated by certain lodges implementing best practices whilst not achieving basic legal compliance. The results indicate that the performance is driven mainly by economic business imperatives, followed by corporate social responsibility, and less by legal compliance. It is recommended that the KPIs be contextualised to apply to other ecotourism operations, such as lodges in government-run or state-owned conservation areas.

Despite receiving increased research attention, to date, little research has been conducted on the waste-related impacts of tourism activities in marine protected areas (MPAs). To this end, this paper aims to better understand tourism-related waste behaviour within MPAs by applying the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to a specific South African case study. Observed- and self-reported elements of waste separation behaviour were determined for four diving charters and five accommodation facilities within the Aliwal Shoal MPA (n = 9). Observations and waste characterisation were performed to understand actual behaviour, while survey questionnaires based on the TPB were administered to determine self-reported behaviour. Interviews were conducted to explore challenges and opportunities for waste separation at source. The results found a significant percentage of recyclable waste (> 70%) within the disposable waste stream and no waste separation infrastructure at any of the facilities investigated. Survey responses indicated a positive attitude towards waste separation, with a social drive towards participating. Respondents also indicated that they generally participated in waste separation at source, a claim not supported by the observation data. The identified challenges for waste separation at source include a lack of separation infrastructure and collection services, inconvenience, time constraints, and the unwillingness of customers to participate. Accordingly, the main opportunities for waste separation included the provision of waste separation resources and reliable municipal services and strategies for improved waste-related awareness and behaviour. The research allows for the identification and consideration of practical waste management interventions within the study area by stakeholders and regulators.

In South Africa, wetlands are the most threatened ecosystem type but the least protected. With approximately 300 000 hectares of intact wetland remaining in South Africa, the National Biodiversity Assessment (2018) has reported that 62% are classified as critically endangered, and only 15% are in near-natural ecological condition. The Working for Wetlands programme, within the National Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, derives its mandate from the environmental right contained in the Bill of Rights, section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 108 of 1996. The programme supports the protection, promotion of wise use, and rehabilitation of wetlands. Due to the nature of the work undertaken by the programme, within sensitive ecological environments, project interventions would have often triggered listed activities identified in terms of section 24(2)(a)and (b) of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998) (NEMA) and associated Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations. Section 24(2)(e) of the NEMA is the legislative provision which allows for the exclusion of activities from the requirement to obtain an environmental authorisation based on an environmental management instrument adopted in the prescribed manner. The Generic Environmental Management Programme for the Working for Wetlands Programme: Version 0 of October 2020 has firstly expedited planning and implementation processes by reducing timeframes for acquiring environmental authorisation and associated costs thereof, secondly, clearly defines roles and responsibilities that eliminate duplication of functions and reduces the administrative load, and thirdly promotes compliance monitoring for best practice whilst enabling the furtherance of wetland conservation and rehabilitation.

On 15 January 2021, a South African Member of the Executive Committee (MEC) for the Environment amended the Mabola Protected Environment's (MPE) boundaries to remove legal impediments preventing coal mining in this protected area. This decision came in the wake of the MPE being declared a protected area and a series of court cases ending at the Constitutional Court. The objectives of this paper were to: (1) evaluate the potential consequences of the MEC's decision for South African protected areas; (2) speculate on the possible impact on South Africa's reputation in terms of its commitment to safeguarding its protected areas; (3) identify possible weaknesses in the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003 (NEMPAA); and (4) make recommendations to strengthen this Act so that it can reduce the vulnerability of protected areas to arbitrary and prejudicial decision-making. The decision by the MEC highlights the vulnerability of protected areas and the importance of biodiversity conservation, particularly in a context of parochial or partisan objectives and profit-vested interests that have limited (at least in the medium- to long-term) public benefit. It is concluded that the discretionary clauses in NEMPAA may need to be amended to limit or refine the discretion politicians may apply.

The Succulent Karoo Biome is one of 25 internationally recognized biodiversity hotspots, and is the world's only arid hotspot while being the fourth largest biome in southern Africa. It is home to approximately 6,350 species of vascular plants, of which nearly (40%) are endemic to the biome. Many plant species in the Succulent Karoo are notably habitat specialists and endemic. The uniqueness of these plants has attracted great interest, leading to the deliberate targeting of species for personal gain. This has increased biodiversity crime actions, evolving as new species are identified, and interest sparked. This could be driven due to the varied rainfall over the last few decades, impacting the phenology of the plants coupled with the timing of the rainfall as to what type of flora species are targeted as part of flora biodiversity crime. As of 2019, the northern part of the Western Cape has had only flora-related biodiversity crime cases, indicating a shift in the end user's wants from reptiles and insects to succulent and bulbous plants. Looking at the statistics associated with the flora biodiversity crime for the Knersvlakte, interesting trends have been observed and concerning forecasts for 2022 have been made, allowing for numerous interventions to be identified. As the flora biodiversity crime industry is demand-driven and constantly changing, different role players are working together to address the strategies necessary to better manage the aspects of biodiversity crime. This includes, and is not limited to: permitting, compliance, seizing plants, identification, research, rehabilitation, monitoring, and seed capturing. Role players are all affected and are working tirelessly in addressing a better understanding of the ecological loss of our biodiversity, and what it means to communities and landowners alike.

The National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003 (NEM:PAA) serves as the national framework for the declaration and management of protected areas. Section 33 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, requires that any administrative action taken by organs of state must be lawful, reasonable, and procedurally fair. The Promotion of Administrative Justice Act 3 of 2000 (PAJA) gives effect to section 33 of the Constitution. Chapter 3 of NEM:PAA prescribes the mechanisms and processes for consultation during the declaration of protected areas. In this regard, section 33(1)(a) of NEM:PAA requires the MEC to publish a notice of intention to declare the area in the provincial gazette and in at least two national newspapers "distributed in the area in which the affected area is situated". Non-compliance with the procedural requirements of NEM:PAA may lead to a judicial review under PAJA. This paper seeks to critically analyse how strict compliance with NEM:PAA may not only be practically impossible but effectively counterproductive to the objectives of NEM:PAA. In terms of section 33(1)(a) of NEM:PAA, the purpose of placing notices in national newspapers circulated in the 'affected area' is to ensure the notice is accessible to as many people as possible. National newspapers are ordinarily circulated in urban areas and protected areas are primarily located outside urban areas, and, as a result, it is often impossible to find a national newspaper that is circulated in the 'affected area'. Therefore, the requirement to use a national newspaper is often mutually exclusive to the requirement for it to be circulated in the 'affected area'. An amendment is required to be effected which provides for the use of provincial/regional newspapers, which have an online platform. The requirement for a robust consultation will still be met as the online publication will be accessible nationally and the publication will be distributed in hard copy in the affected area.

Many aquatic species have been introduced into confined environments for various purposes, such as the aquaculture industry and ornamental fish trade for hobbyists. Moreover, aquatic animals are also kept under laboratory conditions for research in different fields of science. Anthropogenic sound produced by human activities is now widely recognised as a source of pollution in marine and freshwater environments. It may also affect aquatic animals in confined areas. Many small-sized aquariums and water-filled tanks are used for underwater behavioural studies. Here, we aim to assess and visualise the acoustic field in a fish tank used in sound-related behavioural studies under laboratory conditions. This study deals with sound pressure level measurements and three-dimensional visualisation ensonified by an in-air speaker in two fish tanks that are typically used to explore sound effects on fish in behavioural studies. Our results confirmed that small fish tanks have boundaries that are highly reflective to sound, leading to an acoustic field within the tank that is very complex and different from that in field conditions. Therefore care should be taken when interpreting sound-related behavioural observations under laboratory conditions. The acoustic environment characteristics in natural filled situations and laboratory conditions can play an important role in understanding and interpreting sound-related behavioural changes among taxa. Therefore, it is essential to measure and visualise the acoustic field in fish tanks in which sound-related experiments and bioacoustics surveys are to be carried out. More studies are needed to improve our understanding of underwater sound fields.

Ideally, species monitoring and surveillance (M&S) data should inform conservation management actions, but both the collection of useful data and the ability to act upon it are resource-constrained. Prioritisation of M&S activities is thus necessary. Towards this aim, CapeNature developed a tool for objective prioritisation of indigenous faunal species for M&S.  A three-tier decision-tree approach was developed. Each species was scored on three categories of criteria, namely species vulnerability criteria, relevance criteria, and feasibility criteria. In tier one, the risk of not monitoring a species for its survival and its ecosystem was assessed by considering the interplay between vulnerability criteria and relevance criteria. The outcome guided decisions on whether a lack of M&S would be detrimental. In tier two, a combined vulnerability and relevance score was considered against a feasibility score. The latter reflected the capacity of CapeNature and/or the organisation's partners to carry out M&S. If capacity was lacking, then other options to ensure that monitoring takes place were explored in tier three. In a series of workshops, CapeNature personnel applied the tool to species with ranges of vulnerability scores. The results supported the continuation of some existing M&S programmes, identified improvements needed to ensure that certain programmes were more useful, and highlighted the need to initiate new programmes with the help of partner organisations. For example, monitoring of the Critically Endangered Tradouw redfin (Pseudobarbus burchelli) was rated high priority, with sufficient capacity to continue with the programme, while monitoring of the Endangered Maccoa duck (Oxyura maccoa) was rated medium priority and only possible if an alternative to the current monitoring system was found. The framework should be tested on a wider suite of faunal species, and the potential to adapt it for different applications (e.g. invasive alien species) should be investigated. 

Large carnivores such as leopard (Panthera pardus) can be a challenge to monitor due to their often cryptic and nocturnal behaviour. Their ability to cover large distances, uninhibited by boundary fences, and occurrence at low densities means traditional methods of estimating population size do not produce consistent and robust estimates. The improved understanding of population trends of such a wide-ranging carnivore is critical to inform decision-making and appropriate adaptive management interventions. In 2013, the KwaZulu-Natal Leopard Monitoring Project (KZNLMP) was established as a collaborative effort between various conservation organisations operating in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; namely Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Isimangiliso Wetland Park Authority, Panthera, and Wildlife ACT. The initiative sought to better understand leopard densities and trends, through annual camera trap surveys, in protected areas of varying size and habitat. Five protected areas (Ithala Game Reserve, Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, Tembe Elephant Park, uMkhuze Game Reserve and Eastern Shores) have been consistently surveyed over this nine-year period with varying results. The uMkhuze leopard population initially demonstrated a decline in density during 2013–2018 but has been increasing since 2018. In comparison, and the most concerning, is Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park which has exhibited a declining density. Similar patterns were observed in Eastern Shores but with marked fluctuations. Ithala Game Reserve's current density trend is consistent and, at present, suggests stability in the leopard population. The KZNLMP has collected a robust dataset, enabling a better understanding of leopard trends within KwaZulu-Natal. Key challenges identified include differing stakeholder perceptions, limited funding for annual implementation, reduced incentive to conserve leopards on private game ranches, and the continued demand for leopard products. Key management recommendations include the reduction in illegal offtakes through visible policing and enforcement, increased financial incentives to conserve leopards on private landholdings and sustainable financial resources to continue the KZNLMP.  

The Endangered Kloof frog (Natalobatrachus bonebergi) is endemic to the coastal forests of the southern KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) and northern Eastern Cape (EC) provinces of South Africa, mostly at altitudes below 900 m. It is usually associated with forested streams and ravines, typically in streams with alternating short fast-flowing and longer slow-flowing sections and pools that vary in size and depth. The Kloof frog deposits distinctive eggs in clumps on vegetation and rock surfaces overhanging the stream. Due to its Endangered Red List status and limited distribution, the Endangered Wildlife Trust's Threatened Amphibian Programme started a monitoring programme in partnership with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Vernon Crookes Honorary Officers in 2016. The programme monitored egg clumps along a 200 m section of a stream in the Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve. During this time, monitoring protocols were refined, after which the geographic area of monitoring was expanded to include the Crowned Eagle Estate and Adams Mission in KZN, as well as Silaka and Hluleka Nature Reserves in the EC province. Monitoring results show that 71% of Kloof frogs prefer to lay their eggs on a leaf surface, under full or partial shade. Water depth records show that eggs are usually laid 40–60 cm above streams where the water depth is 0–30 cm. Understanding preferred breeding conditions is necessary for developing effective conservation management actions to maintain the present and future populations of the Endangered Kloof frog. Mitigation measures can be established to minimise impacts on the Kloof frog in relation to climate change and alien invasive plant infestations, for example. The importance of effective long-term monitoring systems for informed conservation management is demonstrated by the Kloof Frog Monitoring Programme. 

Wetlands are important ecosystems as they support a vast array of biodiversity and provide essential ecological goods and services (EGS). These goods and services, such as the provision of food and the regulation of water flow to prevent flooding, improve ecological and social resilience and mitigate the impacts of climate change. Protection and conservation of wetlands are essential to support the resilience of communities to climate change and environmental disasters. Wetland health and ecological goods and service quality assessments are valuable tools to determine the ecological state of wetlands to inform conservation management actions. The Endangered Wildlife Trust's Threatened Amphibian Programme aims to demonstrate the link between amphibian diversity (i.e. healthy amphibian populations) and wetland habitat health in that if wetlands are in a poor ecological state, amphibian diversity decreases and vice versa. Indirectly, better species and ecological health also support healthy human populations. To this end, we initiated long-term monitoring protocols in 2016 to determine habitat health and identify amphibian species assemblages at four project sites located in eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, where the threatened Hyperolius pickersgilli (Pickersgill's reed frog) occurs, supporting the gazetted Pickersgill's reed frog biodiversity management plan. Wetland health scores, EGS scores, and amphibian diversity from each of the four sites were correlated to determine whether amphibian species richness increased or decreased with habitat condition. Results showed a strong positive relationship between amphibian diversity and habitat health, but additional sites will be included in further studies to confirm statistical significance. This highlights the value of amphibian diversity as an indication of wetland health and is an effective monitoring tool for managing wetlands in eThekwini Municipality. Ultimately, improving habitat health through restoration or rehabilitation could have a positive impact on amphibian diversity.

The Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne rosei) is a Critically Endangered amphibian restricted to just six perennial streams on Table Mountain, Cape Town, South Africa. Despite occurring almost exclusively within a protected area, the recent National Biodiversity Assessment classifies the species as "Not Protected" due to the ongoing deterioration of its mountain headwater stream habitat. Variations in the natural flow, invasive alien vegetation, changes to fire frequency, and erosion caused by human foot traffic have all been cited as causes of habitat destruction. Data showing how these threats impact ghost frog habitat and how they cause localized declines in the species are, however, lacking. We investigated the occupancy and detection probability of Table Mountain Ghost Frog tadpoles in 105 randomly selected pools in relation to biotic and abiotic factors to better understand the habitat requirements of the species and link aspects of its ecology to the cited threats. Tadpole occupancy was negatively associated with elevated levels of siltation and embeddedness, suggesting that increased erosion, alien vegetation, and a reduction in flow combine to create sub-optimal habitat for this sensitive species. We further demonstrate how, through an increased understanding of the fine-scale habitat requirements, sensitive species can be used as a proxy of ecosystem health both to map areas of impacted habitat and to track rehabilitation actions. 

South Africa is biodiversity rich. It has a high level of endemism, with three global biodiversity hotspots: namely the Cape Floristic Region, the Succulent Karoo, and the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Region. Floristically, it is home to more than 20,000 plant species, of which 0.2% are extinct, and a further 14% are threatened with extinction (listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN's Red List criteria and categories). Several populations of South Africa's plant species are declining and are in major crisis due to natural habitats being transformed through habitat loss, invasive alien species, and habitat degradation, causing species to be threatened with extinction. The Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers (CREW) is a citizen science programme that involves members of the public in surveying, monitoring, and conserving plants. CREW, which is a partnership programme between the South African National Biodiversity Institute and the Botanical Society of South Africa, was established to survey and document the occurrence of taxa of conservation concern and identify which endemic plants require conservation action. Some species are thought to be lost, and therefore, biological surveys are critically important for conservation to document residual biological diversity. One of CREW's priorities is extensive searches for species that have not been seen recently (e.g., in the last 50 years or more), where the species' habitat remains intact. CREW members use historical records and information about the species' habitat and ecology to inform searches. Here, we present the rediscoveries of Extinct in the Wild species, new localities and even new species discoveries. These discoveries are only possible through the tireless dedication and commitment of field botanists and citizen scientists.

With water quality deteriorating at an alarming rate globally, river sections suited to serve as reference sites are being steadily lost. It thus becomes critical to develop rapid methods to confirm that previously monitored sites continue to meet the requirements of reliable reference sites. Nine near-natural sites, which could be used as reference sites for the Luvuvhu River catchment, were selected to compare the quality of physicochemical factors against a biological metric. The abundance of baetid at a site was chosen as an index of water quality since this family is common in all types of freshwater, highly diverse, and adapted to unpolluted running water. A Spearman's correlation test was used to evaluate the relationship between physicochemical factors and identify redundant variables. Water quality standards were measured against the national water quality guidelines for aquatic ecosystems. We used a generalised linear model to determine the effect of physicochemical variables on baetid species, and canonical correspondence analysis to show the relationships between baetid species, sites and physicochemical variables. A total of 3,039 individuals belonging to 12 mayfly species were recorded. Water temperature was the most important driver of baetid community structure as it negatively affected their abundance. Pseudoponnota sp., Pseudocloeon sp., A. varius, and D. crassi sp showed a clear preference for mean totally dissolved solids, temperature, and stream width. Baetid species indicated good potential as biological indicators of reference sites and chronic water temperature stress, making the assessment of reference sites easier. Biota representing reference conditions is key in river ecological assessment, restoration and sustainable river basin management.

Vulnerable African surface water resources are being altered by multiple water quality, quantity, habitat-altering stressors, alien invasive species, and climate change. These ecosystems support unique biodiversity and ecosystem processes and provide services that communities depend on for their livelihoods. Very few of these water resources are protected, and many that have been afforded protection, including those that occur within protected and conservation areas, are still threatened by multiple stressors originating upstream of these areas. These ecosystems respond to multiple stressors in unique ways that complicate our ability to understand how features or attributes will respond to stressors and what the cumulative or synergistic effects of multiple stressors are. We conducted a regional ecological risk assessment in the Limpopo River Basin, using fish as indicator species, to evaluate the socio-ecological consequences of multiple stressors. Results included a noticeable increase in risk, from zero- to low-risk distribution to low- to moderate-risk distribution, for both social and ecological endpoints from the natural scenario to the present scenario. These results reflect the observed changes in the health of rivers in the basin due to stressors such as altered water quality, quantity, habitat availability, and impoundments. We incorporated a modelled scenario or e-flow scenario to reduce risk and maintain the health of fish communities and fisheries for subsistence fishermen. The environmental flow requirements determined during this study demanded more water than was available (28–30%) to reduce the risk of failure to the endpoints in the Limpopo River Basin. These outcomes should be used as evidence to update the current environmental flow requirements, contribute to stress mitigation, and achieve a sustainable balance between the use and protection of the resources in the basin.

Freshwater is one of the most valuable resources in the world today, not only for people but also for nature - an essential part of the survival of species and ecosystems. The quantity and quality of water available for humans is a tremendous global concern, and the global goal 2015–2030 on water, dubbed "UN Sustainable Development Goal 6", focuses on ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. There is a growing recognition, however, that nature's provisions for humans are not a one-way track to survival and that there is an intricate link between human health and ecosystem health. The vital contribution of ecosystem services to human health has been well documented in various studies, drawing people to a greater appreciation of nature's multiple values. Indeed, new concepts such as nature's contributions to people encompass all contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature to the quality of life for people. This presentation explores the interconnectivity between the health of aquatic ecosystems, particularly fish, and human well-being. The talk will compare upstream and downstream changes in fish populations due to changes in water catchments and discuss how these affect aquatic food chains and human well-being. Comparisons between cultural and modern water management practices, policies and laws will be presented to stimulate discussions on best practices and methods of respecting the water-related rights of indigenous peoples and local communities while acknowledging traditional knowledge and practices.

When faced with the loss of a population, resource managers often feel compelled to choose restoration strategies perceived to have low risks, such as the management of the ecological components of the system or the application of regulatory measures. It can be counterintuitive to share decision-making and resource management with those who want to harvest an imperilled population, and yet this social-ecological strategy resulted in the recovery of a wild Atlantic salmon population in Newfoundland, Canada. Atlantic salmon supported widespread commercial, subsistence, and recreational fisheries, but declines in abundance necessitated closures and other conservation strategies across many areas of Atlantic Canada in the 1990s. Recreational angling for Atlantic salmon was closed in Terra Nova National Park's Northwest River in 1995 when counts were below expectations based on available habitat. The population continued to decline, even though commercial and recreational fishing mortality had been eliminated, and by 2001, extirpation seemed imminent. Despite pressure to pursue conventional strategies such as catch-and-release fishing and stocking, public consultation and human dimensions research revealed that illegal fishing was likely contributing to declines and that distrust of resource managers created an environment conducive to poaching. Disrupting this dynamic could not be achieved with conventional strategies, so an adaptive management approach was implemented. This incorporated local collaboration and improved transparency, and was responsive to positive changes in behaviour. Adoption of social-ecological management led to a rapid and sustained recovery of the salmon population in Northwest River, out-performing populations in adjacent rivers managed with conventional management strategies.

Large protected areas in southern Africa, such as the Kruger National Park (KNP) in South Africa, may form part of larger Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs), in this case being part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (GLTP) co-managed with the Republics of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Similarly, these TFCAs often represent a significant and relatively pristine landscape portion of transboundary river basins shared by several nation-states. Fortunately, some of these protected areas, such as the KNP, have a long history of working to ensure the preservation of their shared freshwater ecosystems. In the case of SANParks, this has taken a strategic adaptive management approach to both understanding the dynamics of the freshwater environment and furthermore to implement various aspects related to national and regional water resources management policy. These experiences should provide a valuable lens through which anticipated climate futures can impact the freshwater vitality of these large protected areas and potentially impact the ecosystem services they provide, both upstream and downstream. Interestingly, emerging efforts are placed on valuing such services, inter alia groundwater recharge, source water protection or water quality amelioration for broader application in terms of adaptation pathways in river basin planning. Momentum is growing in the region on these aspects, for instance, water regulation emanating from the Maloti-Drakensberg, groundwater supplies for human-wildlife co-existence in the Kavango-Zambezi, and river flow and quality in the Great Limpopo. This paper considers these emerging themes and where conservation practitioners can grow the value-add and constituency for such areas under their management.

A river's resilience incorporates concepts of buoyancy and the capacity of populations or communities to recover after a disturbance, and for natural systems to recover from environmental change and persist. Identifying thermal resilience hotspots in freshwater systems enables targeted conservation action, and defining relative ecosystem resilience is important for evaluating potential consequences of climate change on aquatic ecosystems. Impacts include changes in life-cycle length and/or changes in species distributions and abundances in response to reductions in available suitable thermal habitat. The thermal resilience of a river is likely to be affected by variables such as stream order, groundwater depth, flow predictability, water yield (precipitation minus evaporation), and catchment transformation. A database of values for these variables indicating resilience against thermal stress was developed for all sub-catchments in South Africa. Radar plots show the relative importance of the five variables potentially affecting system resilience. The resilience scores (from 0 to 1) for each variable were summed to generate a total thermal resilience score for each sub-catchment and used to generate a map of system resilience to thermal stress for South Africa. This was extended to show hotspots in South Africa, where river systems were most likely to show high thermal resilience. These areas, in association with other criteria such as conservation value, provide an additional metric for prioritising freshwater focal areas for restoration, conservation intervention, and identifying climate change refugia.

Rivers are flows of and for life. They are carbon sinks and temperature moderators, are among the bio-diverse systems on earth, and provide fundamental support to people. They are also integrated, connected ecosystems with longitudinal and lateral links to flow, sediment, and water quality regimes, characterised by complex interactions and feedback loops. They traverse and drain vast landscapes, and are among the most threatened and fastest declining ecosystems in the world. Even when hydrological, sediment and water quality drivers are relatively natural, other human pressures impact ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Development, management, and protection of these ecosystems require a scientific understanding of their eco-social links, evidence-based predictions of effects on riverine, estuarine and marine health and people, transparency, and a structured decision-making framework aimed at balancing economic and socially-just development and maintenance of ecosystem health.

Between 1979 and 2014, 27 fishery projects operated at 11 impoundments in the Orange Vaal River System, with only two projects sustaining operations for 32 years. All others failed within a few weeks or years after initiation, mainly because of unrealistic goals and quotas, lack of a fixed market, and wrong fisheries technologies. Calls for the development of a national inland fisheries policy started in 2007, culminating in the approval of the National Freshwater (Inland) Wild Capture Fisheries Policy in August 2021. A high-level implementation plan, including public consultations, legal reviews, and amendments to existing acts is now to follow. Previous studies have highlighted vast differences between impoundments in terms of potential fish yield, fish community structure, presence of fishery species, gear selectivity, and morpho-edaphic characteristics. This paper seeks to highlight the importance of research to inform decisions before any fishery project is initiated. A "one fit all approach" cannot be applied to all impoundments in South Africa in terms of inland fisheries development, as each impoundment and its fish community is unique.

The development of inland fisheries on impoundments and natural water bodies has been proposed as a means of improving rural livelihoods and food security in South Africa. Empirical models estimate a total potential inland fisheries yield of ~15,000 tonnes/yr from South Africa's impoundments. However, these empirical estimates are preliminary and require validation through fishery feasibility assessments. The majority of South Africa's impoundments are designed and operated for water storage or transfer, not fisheries management or optimisation, and there is a paucity of biological and fish stock data to estimate the fisheries potential of inland waters. Monthly fish surveys using gill nets were undertaken at Flag Boshielo Dam on the Olifants River, Limpopo River System, South Africa. The surveys collected biological parameters (length-weight, length-age, age-at-maturity, and mortality) and fisheries data (catch-per-unit effort and gillnet selectivity) to develop yield-per-recruit and spawner biomass-per-recruit models. These models formed the basis of recommendations on sustainable harvest strategies for potential target species, Labeo rosae and Oreochromis mossambicus. The study found that both species have been substantially exploited by subsistence and other unregulated fishers. Restriction of the current informal fisheries is required to allow the fish stocks to recover before establishing formal fisheries. Per recruit, analyses indicate that an initial mesh size restriction of 100 mm or greater and harvesting of individuals older than four years of both species are required to minimise the risk of stock collapse. The current informal harvest rates need to be quantified before proposed fisheries can be developed. 

In South Africa, inland fisheries are generally undervalued. There is interest in developing the sector. In KwaZulu-Natal Province, Spring Grove Dam was recently built as a water storage facility to provide water to growing urban populations. We assessed whether the impoundment could potentially support fisheries developments. We conducted seasonal fish community surveys in the mainstem of the Mooi River, which feeds into Spring Grove and the impoundment from 2020 to 2021. We caught nine fish species, including six non-native species, of which four are considered invasive by the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA), Act No. 10 of 2004. Only three of the ten expected native species were found; Labeobarbus natalensis, Enteromius anoplus, and Anguilla mossambica. We had a low catch per unit effort and calculated relatively low yields (14.97 t/yr) for Spring Grove Dam, making a commercial fisheries venture unviable without a fisheries enhancement programme. Efforts to eradicate centrarchids may be better to enhance targeted salmonids and L. natalensis populations. These have a niche market and meet biodiversity endpoints. This would support the established subsistence, recreational, and sport fisheries that should be promoted and managed accordingly. We offer recommendations and management suggestions for Spring Grove Dam while considering NEM:BA in light of climate change, increased water storage facility construction, and a nationally neglected fishery industry. 

Despite limited aerial extent, river fishery contributes to 24% of global capture fishery offtake and is especially crucial to livelihoods and nutritional security in Africa and Asia. This data-deficient fishery has received minimal policy interventions compared to lake and marine fisheries. Furthermore, eastward flowing Kenyan rivers harbour four catadromous anguillid species of immense conservation concern. In Kenya and most African countries, the fish taxa targeted, landings, and participation among the predominantly agropastrolist riparian community, are frequently ignored, culminating in a multitude of riverine developments such as dam construction, discharge of pollutants, and exotic introductions with consequences for the biota. The only available landing records for eastward flowing rivers are from the 1980s in the largest Kenyan river (Tana). Records suggest the fishery was virtually nonexistent before the 1960s. A concerted effort by the government saw landings rising from 500 t in the 1960s to 1,500 t in the 1980s, with no subsequent evaluations, hence the current study. This study uses fisher interviews from 420 riparian community members to derive river fishery landing data from two east-flowing Kenyan rivers (Ramisi and Athi). Responses were predominantly from basically-educated adult males from the Kamba, Digo and Giriama communities. Sixty-four per cent of the respondents were either full-time (34%) or part-time (30%) fishers that participated in the fishery for 102 d.yr-1, landing about 7,140 kg.yr-1. Using only data from full-time fishers and the least riparian county population density (79 pers.km-2), conservative estimates of total landings from the two catchments are 1,116 MT. Despite inaccuracy in fisher-based landing estimates, the current estimate excludes the larger Tana river catchment, consequently river offtake may be higher than reported Kenyan marine fishery landings but lower than lacustrine landings. Landed fish are predominantly small to medium-sized omnivorous cichlids (35%) and silurids (26%), but also carnivorous anguillids (13%). Whether this sustained fishing pressure is sustainable requires urgent evaluation. We surmise that river fishery is a crucial cog to riparian community livelihoods, and sustainable interventions in the face of multiple anthropogenic stressors, are required. Threats from overexploitation, existing and future river developments, pollution, and looming climate change impacts, need urgent attention.

Freshwater eels (anguillids) are catadromous migratory fishes which spawn in the sea and live most of their lives in freshwater. Four known species of anguillids occur in the east-flowing river systems of Africa as far south as the Western Cape in South Africa and migrate to the Indian Ocean as far as the west coast of Madagascar, returning to their spawning ground to spawn. Larvae drift in currents to rivers entering estuaries as glass eels. This extensive migration encompasses the life stage of eels, making them susceptible to various environmental and anthropogenic stressors in freshwater and marine environments, with their reduction in freshwater distribution already a concern. There is a socio-valued economy for European and Japanese anguillids however, very little is known about the economic, cultural, and spiritual value of African anguillids. To fill these knowledge gaps, we use questionnaires to understand their contribution to subsistence fisheries in the uMngeni and uThukela catchments, two socio-economically important catchments in the KwaZulu Natal province, South Africa. Additionally, we assess the value of freshwater and eels to sustainable fisheries and livelihoods. Findings show that there is use of anguillids. Locally, mucus and oil extracts from anguillids are used as ingredients in traditional medicine (umuthi) by traditional healers, as a lubricant for women giving birth, and for protection from evil spirits. The associated difficulty in capturing anguillids implies that extracts transfer those powers to an individual who has either consumed umuthi or wears the skin of anguillids around their arm.

Of the 19 globally known anguillid (eel) species, Anguilla mossambica, A. bengalensis, A. marmorata, and A. bicolor occur along East African rivers. Anguillids are globally threatened by multiple stressors, and several East African species are currently categorised as Near Threatened. Although juvenile anguillid recruitment into estuaries is critical to life cycle completion, their identification to species level solely on morphology is problematic without the use of tail pigmentation. Consequently, there is limited information on juvenile eel occurrence along the Kenyan rivers, hindering the development of robust management strategies. This study evaluated the occurrence and recruitment of juvenile anguillids into the Sabaki Estuary using glass eel fyke nets deployed at the lower reaches of the Athi-Galana-Sabaki river. Specimens obtained from July 2021 to January 2022 were identified, and meristic data was recorded. Results showed that out of the 76 juvenile anguillid eels captured, 87% were glass eels compared to elvers (13%). The sizes of glass eels collected were 5.37 ± 0.05 cm, while elvers were 7.69 ± 0.64 cm. A comparison of recruitment among species suggested that A. bengalensis was dominant, constituting 64% of captures, followed by A. mossambica (30%) and A. marmorata (6%), while A. bicolor was absent. Evaluation of influence indicated that a higher recruitment was observed during the waning gibbous moon phase 37% (n = 28) as compared to the first quarter 18% (n = 14), last quarter 16% (n = 12), waxing crescent 16% (n = 12), and full moon phase 13% (n = 10), as well as during the wet season 69.6% (n = 53) as compared to the dry season 30.4 (n = 23). Descriptive statistics on physiochemical parameters indicated that pH, DO, conductivity, temperature, salinity, and total dissolved solids showed a significant difference (p < 0.001) in the recruitment of juvenile anguillid eels. This study demonstrates variation in species, river, and monthly juvenile anguillid recruitment into East African rivers, which should be inculcated into management strategies to protect both the resource and associated fishery livelihoods. 

The development of dams and weirs for South Africa ensures water security for a growing population in a water-scarce country. Generally, such infrastructure disrupts river connectivity and threatens the well-being of migratory fish species in the region. The Thukela River is the second-largest river system in South Africa. The Lower Thukela Bulk Water Transfer Scheme (LTBWSS) is an abstraction weir located in the lower Thukela River. The presence of the LTBWSS impacts the aquatic life of the river and the estuary and potentially disrupts the marine ecosystem, including the Thukela Marine Protected Area. It is important to maintain river connectivity over the LTBWSS for the movements of catadromous, amphidromous, and potamodromous fish species. A vertical slot fishway was designed to alleviate the effects of the impairment of ecological connectivity. We evaluated the efficacy of the fishway and assessed its ability to accommodate the upstream movement of migratory fish and their successful use of the barrier. We used a passive integrated transponder (PIT) telemetry system to monitor upstream movements of PIT-tagged fish past the LTBWSS weir. We tagged 157 fish, and eight were detected passing through the fishway. Preliminary results show that river connectivity for tagged fishes is poorly maintained. The novelty of this study highlights the need for further research on this topic within Africa.

River connectivity is essential for migrating fish species as well as local movements of fish; however, there has been a great deal of disruption in river connectivity by anthropogenic structures. Structures like weirs and dams without fishways can hinder fish from moving upstream or downstream along the longitudinal pathway of the river. Enteromius gurneyii (red-tailed barb) is now a threatened species, and barriers may be one of the causes of its decline. Our study assessed the impact of anthropogenic structures on river connectivity in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We mapped the barriers on five waterways using the "barrier tracker" application developed through the Adaptive Management of Barriers in European Rivers (AMBER) project. We logged different types of instream obstacles, recorded their description, and uploaded relevant photographs. In addition, we documented habitat modifications and the potential ability of fish to pass a barrier based on height. Of the 68 barriers tracked, 39 threatened river connectivity and 15 needed fish passages. Habitat modification through the construction of artificial barriers tends to reduce the resilience of migrating fish populations such as E. gurneyii. Although the Mpushini waterway is in a conservancy area, it had the second highest density of barriers per kilometre, with the uMsunduzi River having the highest. We then suggested various management actions to restore river connectivity. 

The endangered Clanwilliam sandfish (Labeo seeberi) is a large-bodied cyprinid endemic to the Olifants-Doring river system in the Western and Northern Cape Provinces of South Africa. Today, populations remain only in the Doring mainstem and several of its tributaries due to habitat fragmentation, alien fish predation, and flow modification. At the end of winter, adults migrate into tributaries to spawn, leaving behind young-of-the-year sandfish that would historically overwinter in permanent tributary pools. In the Biedouw River, a critical spawning tributary, shifting flow regimes have led to the river running dry each year, resulting in the mass stranding of thousands of young sandfish and thus in negligible recruitment. The Saving Sandfish conservation programme was initiated in 2018 to halt population decline and increase the numbers of spawning individuals in the wild using a rescue-rear-release intervention. In 2020 and 2021, three-month-old sandfish were rescued from shrinking pools in the Biedouw and relocated to six alien-free sanctuary dams in the catchment. Sandfish were released back into the wild in September 2021 after attaining a "bass-proof" average size of 17 cm. To date, 15,095 sandfish have been rescued and relocated to sanctuary dams and 1,277 have been released back into the wild, 994 of which were implanted with PIT tags to monitor survival. Early results suggest sandfish adapt well to lentic dam conditions and suffer no harm from tag implantation: there was a survival rate of 40% in a key sanctuary dam 16 months after the first rescue and tagged sandfish healed well after implantation, with no visible marks at the puncture site five months after tagging. Ongoing monitoring efforts will soon reveal the survival rate of dam-reared sandfish in the wild, informing an adaptive management approach to future conservation action. 

Suckermouth catfishes are rheophilic primary freshwater fishes with extensive intraspecific variation. Recently, molecular tools combined with morphology have resolved taxonomic uncertainties in the mochokids, which is relevant to their use as model species in river health assessments. We used principal component analysis to investigate morphological variation within and among populations of Limpopo Chiloglanis pretoriae, and nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b gene to assess the phylogeographic structure. Intraspecific morphometric analysis revealed variation that showed a western-eastern catchment split, with the middle catchment showing population overlaps. The patterns of phylogeographic structure also showed the western-eastern split, indicating historical isolation between the geographical extremes of the system. We recommend that populations in the headwater streams of western catchments, which showed high divergence, should be given high conservation priority, as these semi-arid western catchments are predicted to be more negatively impacted by future climate change compared to their eastern counterparts. The Luvuvhu catchment should also receive a high conservation status as it appears to be an important refugium, harbouring high genetic diversity.

Conservation is now at the forefront more than ever. As the population continues to grow, so does the reliance on natural ecosystems for survival. Ecosystems such as wetlands provide the much-needed relief of services that come at no cost to the consumer. Nature provides several valuable resources, including water, soil, and biodiversity. This study was conducted at the Umalalzi Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and aimed to quantify the ecosystem goods and services value of the reserve to neighbouring communities. The objectives were to (1) assess the number of people benefitting from resources within the park and (2) assess the value and quantity of the resources extracted. Juncus kraussii (incema), Phragmites australis (ikhwane) and Cyperus latifolius (umhlanga) are the main species extracted during the annual incema harvest. Approximately 500 harvesters visit the reserve to harvest the reeds from a wetland within the reserve boundaries. Post-harvesting, the wetland is cleared of debris to allow new growth to appear. This study used a qualitative approach to data collection. The survey consisted of three sections, namely demographics, resource use, and ecosystem goods and services valuation. KoboCollect (an app) was installed on four devices and used to conduct the surveys. The data indicates that most of the harvesters travelled from Ulundi, more than 90% were female, and 60% were over 57. Of those surveyed, 37% only had primary school exposure, and 31% had never gone to school. The harvesters use the reeds to make mats and baskets that they sell for an average of R300 (medium-sized mat) and R80 (small basket), respectively. Their only other source of income is government social grants. However, some harvesters also use the reeds to make mats for their dowry. Some recommendations going forward are that (1) the harvest days need to be extended, (2) more blocks need be opened for harvesting, (3) cost implications for the reserve as well as harvesters need to be reevaluated, and (4) cleaning up of the wetland after the harvest needs to be prioritized.  

In 2021, Shell announced its intention to start exploration for oil and gas over 6,000 square kilometres of ocean off the Wild Coast, including adjacent to Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve. In December 2021, a coalition of concerned parties, including the Dwesa-Cwebe Communal Property Association, won a case in the Grahamstown High Court based on evidence of potential environmental harm and the importance of the Dwesa-Cwebe marine protected area (MPA) to livelihoods for the Dwesa-Cwebe community, amongst other things. The irony of this winning argument and victory is that for years, before and since the establishment of the MPA, tensions between conservation authorities and local communities were at an all-time high, with communities demanding, and indeed using extra-legal means, to access marine resources. Using a detailed review of the literature concerning the importance of the biodiversity of the Wild Coast, its conservation and use by local rural people, as well as semi-structured interviews with traditional leaders and managers of the Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve, including the MPA, the study aimed to understand cost and benefit of the MPA, in light of the violent tensions between the state and communities. The study found that from the biodiversity conservation point of view, the MPA is extremely important and deserves protection. The study also found that based on local people's discontent about restrictions on marine resources in the MPA and the endemic violent clashes between local people and conservation law enforcement, it is unlikely that the MPA would have a sustainable existence in the near future. The paper concludes that it is upon the state to invest more in mending the relations with local communities, including establishing agreed-upon monitoring and security systems that would allow for sustainable harvesting of marine resources by communities, as well as financial resources for the employment of community liaison people to improve integration between the disparate goals of conservation and local people's utilisation of marine resources.

Alternative livelihood projects are gaining traction as key strategic tools ideal for reducing local-level threats to species, habitats, and resources of conservation concern. This study aimed to broaden the scope of options to assist Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in finding a balance between effectively managing protected areas and addressing the need to deliver the expected benefits to local communities. The study aimed to investigate the use of alternative livelihood initiatives by reviewing protected areas that used this tool to reduce excessive pressure from communities living adjacent to them. The objective was to understand the process and outcomes of such a tool before considering its use. The study was a desktop study using internet searches. A total of 15 case studies were reviewed. Findings revealed that most alternative livelihood projects were implemented in developing countries. Common pressures experienced by protected areas that led to them implementing alternative livelihood projects were hunting, poaching, deforestation, human-wildlife conflict, overgrazing, and socio-economic issues. The success and failure of most projects were dependent on the availability of funding. After implementation, better working relations between communities and protected area staff were noticed. Findings show positive results of alternative livelihood projects and more willingness from local communities to work with the protected area management. It is recommended that if Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife implements alternative livelihood projects, they need long-term funding, training programmes, and partnerships with local, provincial, and national governments and NGOs. Projects implemented should differ according to the area and needs in question.

Representative samples of biota collected relative to environmental gradients are important in being able to measure present distributions and predict future range shifts of taxa in response to climate change or reduced river connectivity. Based on established measures of species diversity and river ecology theory, we present a method to identify suitable river segments for sampling and monitoring changes in taxon diversity. Alpha and beta diversities of selected aquatic macroinvertebrates were assessed in seven South African rivers. Data were drawn from historical and field samples and represented longitudinal species patterns down longitudinal river axes. A logistic regression model to predict the probability of site pairs being more than 50% similar as a function of up/downstream distance was used to identify representative sampling sites. Alpha diversities peaked in the upper third of river lengths; beta diversities showed predictable exponential decay rates down river axes up to but excluding the start of estuarine conditions. Application of the model to a 370 km long river indicated that 14 sites should be selected for sampling that represents overall biodiversity patterns. Additional factors, such as confluences with tributaries, influencing alpha diversity at sites are identified and should be incorporated in site selection planning.

The Muzi Swamp is the only permanent surface water source located in Tembe Elephant Park, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and is therefore vital to the survival of wildlife in the park. In addition, local community members rely on harvesting reeds from the peatland as their primary source of income. The peatland extends over 20 km from the south into Mozambique in the north and is South Africa's only known coastal chalk mire. Whilst the Muzi Swamp is considered important for these reasons, the upstream parts of the peatland have reached a severe stage of degradation and have experienced sub-surface peat fires on three occasions between 2013 and 2017. The most recent and worst sub-surface fire burnt continuously for 18 months. Apart from the loss in carbon, large patches of the upper reaches of the peatland remain bare of vegetation, and the reeds that are present are notably smaller and less dense compared to unburnt areas. In order to gain insights into the hydrology of this mire and the effects that peat fires have on its functioning, a series of wells and piezometer nests were installed across the peatland. This presentation explores the findings of the system's hydrology and hydrodynamics in order to make recommendations concerning the rehabilitation of the system. Findings note the importance of the eastern dune system bordering the wetland with regards to discharging groundwater to the wetland, thereby buffering seasonal rainfall. Furthermore, in places where the sub-surface fires were the most severe, ponding water is now present, indicating a self-regulating new peat-forming habitat.

Cut-and-fill processes, characteristic of many valley-bottom wetlands, present a challenge to practitioners planning wetland restoration. It is unclear whether the current synchronicity and spatial scale of incision are 'natural' and whether these wetlands will naturally recover without intervention during the 'fill' phase. This study focused on a palmiet (Prionium serratum)-dominated valley-bottom wetland in South Africa to evaluate the potential for natural geomorphic ecosystem recovery in the context of current catchment constraints. Historical rainfall records, aerial photography, and a differential global positioning system survey were used to contextualise geomorphic processes. The study investigated the sedimentology of alluvial fill by sampling sediment profiles. Samples were analysed for particle size and organic content; five were dated using radiocarbon. Sedimentology and radiocarbon dates were used to ascertain phases of incision and aggradation along wetland reaches. While several phases of incision are represented in the record, none were represented in more than one location, suggesting phases of erosion and subsequent deposition were spatially and temporally segregated. The current synchronous phase of incision across the wetland is, therefore, unprecedented. Analysis of sedimentation rates indicated that infilling of the gully decreases exponentially over time. Infilling of a 3 m deep gully in the Pietersielieskloof wetland under natural catchment conditions is estimated to take ~5000 years. Analysis suggests that there has been a reduction in wetland resilience over the last century and that a change in catchment hydrology and sediment supply has altered this system such that it has crossed a geomorphic threshold. Thus, while processes in cut-and-fill wetlands do lend themselves to natural recovery, the time required might exceed that which is considered acceptable, necessitating intervention. 

Scientific research is essential to inform good decision-making and to establish the context for sustainable water management. This requires improved understanding and communication of all facets of freshwater biodiversity. A central goal of the South African National Biodiversity Institute's (SANBI) Freshwater Programme is to synthesise and generate information that aids in better freshwater management, restoration, and conservation decisions, and to regularly provide a freshwater ecosystem and species status update as part of the National Biodiversity Assessment. This paper is an opportunity to communicate recent work by this relatively new programme within SANBI on spatial dataset curation, coordination and updates, freshwater data pipeline and data visualisation platforms, and identification of fragmented efforts and knowledge gaps on freshwater ecosystem status and distribution. The paper hopes to stimulate discussion and invite collaboration with the SANBI Freshwater Programme to advance research, curate the best available data, positively impact freshwater ecosystems, and influence freshwater policy, management and conservation.

Despite the progressive and enabling legislative and institutional framework for integrated approaches to water security, there is growing evidence that the integrity of many river systems in southern Africa is declining. This resonates with global concerns about water security in an increasingly complex and dynamic context within which water governance unfolds. Declining water security impacts on multiple facets throughout the river basin system, often with unanticipated outcomes. Nonetheless, few plans consider systemic linkages or dynamics, particularly in the context of climate change and other risks. The normative framing of problems as simple causalities, together with linear thinking and practices, continues to dominate despite increasingly complex governance domains and outcomes. In response, we track the evolution of systemic, adaptive water governance as an evolving praxis in the highly stressed, transboundary Olifants and Crocodile River Basins shared between South Africa and Mozambique. By focusing on the needs of stakeholders and water resource managers and 'designing- back' from real-world demands and practices, the development of appropriate institutional and technological arrangements is illustrated. The protracted drought of 2015–2020 provided a window into potential, uncertain futures and the opportunity to enact such systemic, adaptive water governance. We highlight the need for holistic, adaptive governance arrangements that explicitly support feedback as the basis for adaptability through reflexivity and learning; as well as the pejorative role of institutional and political uncertainty and the lack of capacity and resources in undermining sustainability. Further, we reflect on the use of systemic tools as mediating devices for collaborative governance arrangements, on how networks of state and non-state actors can potentially fill governance gaps, and how these can be supported by important processes and tools.

The Ecological Infrastructure for Water Security project (EI4WS) focuses on unlocking the potential for ecological infrastructure to contribute to water security in South Africa. The EI4WS project works directly in two catchments, the Berg-Breede catchment in the Western Cape (which supplies most of Cape Town's water) and the Greater uMngeni catchment in KwaZulu-Natal (which supplies most of Durban's water). Through the project, work has been undertaken to refine the mapping and associated attribute information for selected water-related ecological infrastructure features at a fine spatial scale, including wetlands, rivers, riparian areas, and strategic water source areas. These water-related ecological infrastructure features have been consolidated into a map of water-related ecological infrastructure, which provides a multi-purpose product. Applications include, amongst others, informing ecological infrastructure investment and management plans at the catchment level, including ecological infrastructure in spatial biodiversity plans, and mainstreaming ecological infrastructure into catchment management strategies. A suite of natural capital accounts has also been piloted within the project. These include strategic water source area accounts, catchment-level water resource and land accounts, and ecosystem accounts for wetlands, rivers and riparian areas.

Climate change and biodiversity loss are serious concerns for environmental researchers and conservationists. However, the impacts of climate change and biodiversity loss disproportionately affect low-income, marginalised communities and indigenous groups. Conservation and environmental initiatives, however, sometimes perpetuate historical injustices of marginalised people where human needs and well-being are not met or used as a means to an end. We argue that environmental justice may be effectively merged with conservation psychology to promote justice-oriented conservation psychology in which conservation practice is foregrounded by efforts that promote well-being and equality, especially for historically marginalised groups impacted by conservation work and protected areas. We discuss a case study of a community based on the western border of the Kruger National Park, South Africa, impacted by conservation-related environmental injustices under apartheid. We discuss the role of capacity building in a community-based conservation initiative that simultaneously promotes justice, human well-being, and conservation goals using photography as a conservation tool and career opportunity. Specifically, we use the photovoice method to explore the experiences of a group of young black South Africans who have graduated from a capacity-building programme focused on photography and environmental education. The findings suggest that long-term engagement and a supportive network are key features of successful capacity building. Furthermore, learning photography skills is found to be both an appealing career path for the youth and improves the representation of young black photographers in conservation. Overall, the outreach approach provides insight into how capacity-building may provide an inclusive, empowering, and supportive foundation for historically disadvantaged youth and opens opportunities within the fields of conservation and/or photography-related careers. This provides insight into how justice-oriented conservation initiatives may look in a South African context.

Without people, there is no conservation. Large protected areas like National Parks, game reserves and nature reserves are a fundamental aspect of effective conservation, but there are still countless small and marginalised natural spaces outside of these protected areas. These smaller conservation areas are often overlooked and left legally unprotected, but they are crucial in preserving biodiversity, improving habitat connectivity and supporting the lifestyles and livelihoods of people from all socio-economic groups. Traditional community conservation strategies and organised conservancies play a vital role in protecting these environments and ecosystems and can be the main driver for enforcing rules, regulations, and traditional stewardship, as well as generating local employment opportunities. They face significant resource limitations and lack formal governmental support but still manage to raise awareness and increase the protection of ecosystems within their area. What are the key strategies that conservancies employ to ensure small natural spaces are protected, and how do we replicate these strategies for the wide variety of communities in South Africa and beyond?

Many of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife's protected areas are experiencing illegal cattle grazing, making this a critical management issue. In an effort to contribute to biodiversity conservation and management of protected areas, this study investigated the drivers behind the increasing cases of illegal cattle grazing. The objectives of this study were to obtain a better understanding of how cattle owners view and relate to protected areas, investigate the drivers behind cattle owners grazing their cattle inside protected areas, assess if cattle owners have intentions to stop illegal cattle grazing and interact with key informants on the matter. The study adopted a qualitative approach for collecting data through semi-structured household interviews, observations, and key informative interviews. Study areas were communities adjacent to Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve, Impendle Nature Reserve, and Ophathe Game Reserve. A total of 166 interviews were conducted, and data analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel and Stata 11.0 software. The majority of the participants, 96% (n = 161), indicated that they were aware that grazing inside the protected areas was illegal; nevertheless, 58% (n = 97) still admitted to grazing their cattle inside the protected areas. Most of the respondents (93%) felt that the conservation of the environment was important and necessary. The reasons for grazing cattle illegally differed across the three protected areas; they included the unavailability of grazing land, the poor-quality feed within their communal lands, and the lack of accessible grazing land. All three study areas did not have grazing management plans. The study observed the need to initiate a task team, including Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and other relevant stakeholders, to focus on and address issues related to cattle ownership around protected areas and grazing within protected areas in keeping with organisational policies and protected area objectives.

In southern Africa, non-timber forest product (NTFP) plant species provide diverse livelihood products and occur in both natural and secondary vegetation, and yet their value to agricultural systems remains largely unrecognised. This study assessed the NTFP and agroforestry system (AFS) value of native plant species growing at Manzengwenya forestry plantation estate on the Maputaland coastal plain. The assessment specifically considered how differences in forestry plantation management had affected the provision of native plant resources and how to incorporate these plant species into a forestry plantation system. Varying patterns of agricultural disturbance combined with differences in forest and woodland recovery processes influence the species composition of secondary vegetation and, ultimately, the availability of NTFPs. Sampling occurred in four vegetation communities: natural forest, mature and regrowth forest, abandoned plantation compartments within naturalising forest, and secondary woodland. We developed a species-use matrix for the woody species that occurred across these communities and analysed the potential plant uses of each. Secondary vegetation growing in abandoned plantation compartments contained plant species which could provide medicinal and spiritual resources, food and beverage products, building, fuel and craft products, gums, oils, and resins. In addition, many species provided agroforestry options as they provide fodder or could be used for intercropping. In abandoned clear-felled compartments, the development of a secondary woodland contained fire-adapted woodland species (e.g. Marula and iLala Palm) and therefore held a unique socio-economic value when compared to naturalised forest growing in the understory of unfelled plantation compartments. In water-limited ecosystems such as the Maputaland coastal plain, many naturally regenerating native species hold value to the communities which neighbour the plantation. These vegetation systems could be managed as resource areas, such that they buffer wetland systems, or as silvopastures that function to protect plantation compartments from unplanned fire. Given that many species hold multiple uses, AFS practices such as shelterbelts or boundary systems have further potential to provide locally useful plant resources, thus adding socio-economic value to forestry plantation systems.

Aquaculture in Zanzibar contributes significantly to the socio-economic sector by improving the economy through income, food security, and employment. In this context, many inhabitants from coastal areas of Zanzibar engage in sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) farming as a new opportunity. Most farmers install sea cucumber farming systems without considering the importance of site selection as a key aspect of getting favourable environmental parameters. This study aimed to identify the potential sites for sea cucumber farming in Zanzibar coastal waters. Samples were taken in September 2019 at 24 villages on Unguja and Pemba islands, with 16 on Unguja and eight on Pemba. Site visits and observations collected quantitative data on the physical appearance of the areas. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were carried out with about 10–12 respondents at each site, covering questions on effective areas for establishing sea cucumber farms, community interest in sea cucumber farming, sites where Holothurian species are found or were previously found, and reasons for the disappearance of sea cucumbers. Water quality parameters such as temperature, salinity, and pH were measured using YSI water sampling equipment. The results indicate that all 24 selected sites are suitable for sea cucumber farming. The water sample temperature ranged from 26–29 ^oC, salinity was 34.5–35.0 ppt, and pH was 7.0–7. About 99.5% of the Pemba community was very interested in sea cucumber farming, and the remainder was not. On Unguja, about 78% of the community was interested, 12% were not, and 10% were not yet sure. The 21.5% difference in interest between the two islands is because Unguja has a greater variety of possible livelihoods than Pemba. Based on the results, the fishery management should demarcate the sea cucumber spawning sites to allow the conservation of these species. Fishery managers should protect those sites where sea cucumbers are more common and not allow any anthropogenic activity that will destroy the benthic environment preferred by sea cucumbers e.g. seagrass. This would improve the sea cucumber resources. Managers should also formulate by-laws and specific interventions that allow the installation of sea cucumber farms at those sites where sea cucumbers were previously found but have since disappeared. This would encourage the restoration of sea cucumber resources and, through this, will reduce the capture of wild stock since the farmers will get the seeds for their farms. Policymakers and fishery managers should develop management guidelines for sea cucumber farming to improve the sea cucumber populations. These guidelines would guide the farmer on installing farms without destroying the benthic community, how to escape ghost fishing, and how to restore or form aquaculture enhancement of the sea cucumber. 

For the past 15 years, the Orange-Senqu River Commission (ORASECOM) has organised the Joint Basin Survey (JBS) on the Orange and Senqu Rivers. The latest survey, JBS 3, was completed at the end of 2021 and included several new components in addition to the routine water quality, riparian health, diatom, invertebrate, and fish surveys. These additions included surveying persistent organic pollutants, radionuclides, eDNA, and plastics (macro & micro), providing a more in-depth look into the factors affecting the health of our country's hardest working river, the Orange. This survey reveals the biggest impacts on the river system and identifies spatial and temporal trends within the catchment. Some of the more pressing impacts include the amount of sediment being transported down the system from the Lesotho Highlands and the impacts from flow regime changes caused by dams on the system which absorb crucial flooding events needed for the proper functioning of the river ecosystem. The survey was a 2-week intensive survey that had three teams of specialist freshwater scientist teams split into the upper, middle and lower reaches of the Orange-Senqu system. This study highlighted the need for routine monitoring of the system as well as the need for action and enforcement by the governments responsible for the management of this key resource. As more pressure is put on the system from climate change, anthropogenic expansion, and pollution, it is becoming increasingly important to protect our valuable resource.

Catchments and estuaries are fragile systems that are prone to degradation from many different anthropogenic impacts (e.g. flow abstraction/diversion, sand mining, soil erosion). In South Africa, many anthropogenic impacts on estuarine systems are derived from subjective expert opinions that are unsupported by science. River flow is one of the main factors that control the dynamics of many estuaries worldwide. It is important to understand the water flow depth, direction, and velocity in estuaries since they affect and control the erosion, transport, and deposition processes of alluvial sediment and nutrients. The Mlalazi Estuary is one of the best-conserved estuaries situated along the eastern shoreline and is classified as a temporarily open/closed estuary. The volume of observed hydrological data for the estuary that could be used to improve the decision-making process is limited. Therefore, a numerical model is a useful tool to derive the best estimates of flow dynamics. This study investigated the flow dynamics associated with fluvial events within the Mlalazi Estuary resulting from Q2yr, Q10yr, Q20yr, Q50yr, and Q100yr flood return periods. The hydraulic modelling software, HEC-RAS (version 5.0) flow model, aided by GIS (HEC-geoRAS), was used to obtain estimates of the flow velocity and water levels within the Mlalazi Estuary and floodplain. The model was calibrated and validated using the historical data from the 1987 flood survey and continuous water level data from monitoring sites established by the Hydrology Department of the University of Zululand in 2015. The model gave satisfactory performance statistics for high flood events during calibration and validation periods. However, the model overestimated the Q2yr stage and velocity event in the upper estuary channel and underestimated the stage and velocity in the lower estuary channel. The study concluded that a physically based, numerical flow model is the best method for providing reliable estimates of water level responses to various fluvial flood events, soil erosion and alluvial sediment deposition zones in the estuary.

The Cape dwarf eelgrass, Zostera capensis, is the dominant seagrass species in sheltered estuaries of South Africa with a disjunct distribution along the coastal biogeographic regions. The largest and more stable beds of Z. capensis, with intertidal and subtidal ecotypes inhabiting contrasting micro-environments, are found in Knysna Estuarine Bay. Reportedly, intertidal ecotypes exhibit reduced photosynthetic activity, leaf lengths, and leaf widths but increased shoot, leaf density, and cover per unit area as they are exposed to higher temperatures and light intensities. These responses, however, are species specific and regional. This study aimed to determine the physiological and morphological characteristics of the two ecotypes at the upper, middle, and lower reaches of Knysna. Sampling was conducted along three parallel belt transects (perpendicular to the shore) per estuary region, with six quadrats (three per ecotype) about 1 m apart. Environmental variables (EVs) such as pH, salinity, temperature, and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) were also measured. Generalised linear mixed models, with EVs as random variables, were used to determine significant differences between ecotypes. Photosynthetic activity of intertidal ecotypes of the upper reaches indicated desiccation stress. Leaf widths and lengths of ecotypes of the upper and lower reaches were significantly different. Significant differences in shoot density, leaf counts, and cover between ecotypes were observed at all estuary reaches. These responses allow the plasticity of Z. capensis to acclimatise to wider ranges of environmental conditions across its bathymetric gradient. It is worth noting, however, that anomalies from parameters such as seagrass cover may indicate that the species is severely affected by the effects of global change and management of its distribution is required. However, spatial and temporal monitoring is recommended to better understand the responses of this species; this could also indicate meadows that are declining or indicate fast recovery from stress to serve as donor sites for restoration programmes as populations of this species are declining and have extirpated in some estuaries.

Conservation of nesting leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles within the iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage Site in northern KwaZulu-Natal began in 1963 following their near-disappearance from the coast due to poaching. The marine turtle programme was immediately established to protect and monitor the recovery of these nesting species and has since taken pride of place among the most successful conservation programmes for KZN Wildlife, as well as being amongst the longest-running programmes of its kind globally. Despite the investments, the recovery of these populations in response to protection has met with varying levels of success. The nesting loggerhead turtle population trend, following close to six decades of active conservation and monitoring, clearly indicates an overall conservation success story. However, a serious decline in the population trend commencing around 2011/2012 has elicited concern. The nesting leatherback population displayed a weaker but positive response compared to loggerheads despite being subjected to the same beach protection regime and having a reproductive strategy that technically favours their recovery. As it stands, the nesting leatherback population trend, after an initial increase, has seemingly stabilised over the approximately 60-year programme duration. As our regional subpopulations of leatherbacks and loggerheads are regarded as Critically Endangered and Near Threatened respectively, conservation of these species both inside and outside protected areas becomes more important. We look at the latest population parameters for these two nesting species, population trends, adaptive management implementations, as well as the value and challenges associated with the maintenance of a consistent long-term conservation monitoring programme. 

The effects of significant declines in chondrichthyan populations can only be adequately described where sufficient information exists regarding their distribution, abundance, and diversity. Sodwana Bay, located along the northeastern coast of South Africa and within the iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area (MPA), is a popular global destination for coastal recreation. However, the conservation status of chondrichthyans in Sodwana Bay, and the capacity of this MPA to protect, them is unknown. This study aimed to obtain baseline information using baited remote underwater video system (BRUV) surveys testing for spatio-temporal variation of chondrichthyan species composition and abundance in Sodwana Bay, as well as the significant environmental drivers within the area. BRUV deployments and corresponding environmental data were collected from the Sodwana Dive Restricted Zone (SDRZ) during summer (2020) and winter (2021), with preliminary results to be presented. A total of 18 species from seven families were recorded across 215 sites between 8 - 32.7 m depth. Both frequency and abundance were greatest on sandy habitats and within the intermediate (16 - 30 m) depth category. Most observations made throughout the study were of shark species, with the Human's whaler shark Carcharhinus humani being the most dominant. Additionally, the leopard stingray (Himantura leoparda) and the whitespotted wedgefish (Rhynchobatus djiddensis) were found to be the most abundant ray species in the SDRZ. Significant correlations exist between most environmental parameters (temperature, visibility, latitude, and depth) and the chondrichthyan community. From the identified taxa, the most abundant species, C. humani, is listed as data deficient, while 16 species are listed as either Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered species. Our study suggests that the SDRZ may be important in providing a safe refuge for Endangered chondrichthyans as anthropogenic pressures continue to globally increase. 

Economic growth and environmental sustainability are the two cornerstones of the African Blue Economy. Sustainably-managed fisheries along the African continent will contribute to and benefit both cornerstones. A popular tool to achieve such sustainability is through the use of spatial management, which requires information on the habitat use of a species, especially since animal movements shape ecosystems by structuring spatio-temporal interactions with other animals (including humans). Acoustic telemetry is now the primary tool used worldwide to study fish movements and habitat use and, through its popularity, has led to the development of large-scale acoustic telemetry networks around the globe, including South Africa's Acoustic Tracking Array Platform. Not only can the data collected by these networks answer a plethora of research questions about complex migratory movements, predator-prey interactions, and post-release behaviour, but by placing receivers strategically within biologically significant or protected areas, one can gain a better understanding of the relative importance of these areas to both resident and migratory species. It is essential to understand the degree of efficacy and connectivity between these protected areas as, without protection, fishes will continue to be overexploited, leading to further stock collapses in Africa, and negatively impacting food security and biodiversity. Consequently, this talk will explore and showcase some of the important telemetry work taking place in marine protected areas (MPAs) along the South African coastline, and will highlight the importance of understanding the relative connectivity between protected areas in order to assess the efficacy of these MPAs, which will, in turn, be able to inform future protected area designations or amendments to existing MPAs.

Life on the planet emerged from the ocean, and humans depend on its conservation for survival. Oceans cover 71% of the earth's surface area and play a critical role in planetary health, especially biosphere functioning and climate regulation. Human activity, both on land and at sea, creates many pressures on ocean systems. Furthermore, although the earth and its oceans have undergone periodic phases of heating and cooling over many millennia, global warming and climate change have accelerated at an unprecedented rate since the Industrial Revolution. During this era of the Anthropocene, the need to address the pressures on global oceans has become one of the most important, complex, and urgent challenges to address. An anthropogenic activity is any human action that results in environmental change (e.g. pressure), such as aquaculture, shipping, and fishing. Ultimately, pressures may impact the physiology or life history of organisms and alter ecosystems (e.g. reduced survival and habitat loss). Various research has identified and assessed past trends of multiple ocean pressures, but less progress has been made in forecasting pressures for the mid- to long-term. In order to identify the current state of knowledge of the globally forecasted human pressures on the ocean, we provide a literature review of the future trends of approximately 25 anthropogenic pressures and their corresponding activities. We give an overview of the predicted trajectory of each pressure, its temporal interval, spatial resolution, and scenarios used for analyses. We recommend a way forward for future research by identifying important but under-researched pressures that should receive urgent attention given their potential magnitude of influence.

Shark nets and baited hooks (drumlines) are set to protect bathers and KwaZulu-Natal's valuable tourism industry in South Africa. Sharks die in this gear and, as a group, they are particularly vulnerable to extinction. The KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board, which manages the gear, strives to minimise the impact of the operation. In recent decades, it has greatly reduced the number of shark nets. This is a human-wildlife conflict and balancing the risks to both bathers and sharks is complex. We aimed to engage stakeholders whose work intersects with protecting sharks and/or protecting bathers to co-evolve our understanding of the issues, to hear diverse perspectives, and work together to consider how to reduce and ultimately prevent shark mortalities in KwaZulu-Natal's bather protection programme. These transdisciplinary stakeholders participated in an online knowledge café to identify practical steps to leverage change. Their suggestions included: initiating a working group to drive this process forward; collating and sharing existing research to identify ways to mitigate this human-wildlife conflict; communicating with decision-makers to offer support and identifying a champion among them to mainstream the issue; beginning in designated marine protected areas; engaging with the Blue Flag beach programme; conducting beach-specific cost/benefit analyses, factoring in tangible and intangible aspects of social, ecological and environmental factors. In addition, the feasibility of various alternative strategies should be assessed and prioritised for testing in KwaZulu-Natal. Lastly, different funding models should be considered and the process aligned with a national framework such as the Shark Biodiversity Management Plan. These actions constitute suggestions for further transdisciplinary learning to assist the Sharks Board and together strive for solutions to offer safe swimming in KwaZulu-Natal for both people and sharks.

The KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board deploys a combination of large mesh-size gillnets and drumlines along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline to protect bathers against potential shark incidents. However, this extractive shark-safety gear results in excessive bycatches of non-target species, including several species of batoids (rays), birds, teleosts (ray-finned fish), turtles, and cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Over the years, the entity made substantive changes to minimise bycatches of this megafauna through several mitigation strategies, including aerial surveys to remove gear during the annual sardine run, the whale migration seasons, and deployment of the acoustic deterrence devices to minimise bycatches of cetaceans. The major mitigation strategy on a spatial scale is the reduction of net efforts over the years and the replacement of nets with drumlines. The latter strategy, of the mixed-gear of net replacement with drumlines, is theoretically expected to reduce bycatches of non-target species while still catching the targeted (shark) species. This study investigated the long-term catch data (2007–2021) to determine the effectiveness of the mixed-gear strategy in reducing bycatches of non-shark megafauna while minimising the risk of shark incidents. Generalised additive mixed models fitted on the catch per unit effort and absolute catches revealed significantly increased numbers of birds, turtles, and whales (p > 0.005). However, there is a decreasing trend in the number of dolphins and teleosts caught (p < 0.005). Since the instigation of the mixed-gear strategy, drumlines caught a relatively high number of tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier) (n = 248) and great white (Carcharodon carcharias) (n = 89) sharks compared to significantly few (n = 7) catches of Zambezi shark (Carcharhinus leucas). In summary, the mixed-gear strategy remains an optimum shark-control technique to protect bathers against all three targeted species however, taxa-specific mitigation strategies are needed to curb increasing numbers of non-target species caught. 

Algoa Bay, South Africa is recognised as a sentinel site for marine biodiversity in South Africa based on its unique ecological and biological characteristics. Two of South Africa's most important seabird colonies are found in Algoa Bay. The islands of St. Croix and Bird were previously home to 50% of the remaining Endangered African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) population, while Bird Island hosts the largest Endangered Cape gannet (Morus capensis) colony in the world. Algoa Bay is also of considerable economic importance to a highly impoverished region and has been the site of several economic interventions. The expansion of Coega Harbour and the advent of ship-to-ship bunkering nearby was one such intervention. Coega Harbour is located < 7 km from St Croix Island and presents an imminent threat to African penguins. The additional vessel traffic to the bay compounds this risk and increases the probability of hazardous events, including oil spills. Not only is there a threat of oil spills, the increased ship traffic to the bay means elevated noise levels and increased pollution from the bilge and ballast water released by ships. Recent research shows a clear link between human-induced activities and the 80% decline in African penguins on St. Croix over a 5-year period. Despite this, little is being done to mitigate these impacts, and approaches are still very reactionary instead of precautionary. Economic interventions must be balanced against the need for environmental protection. Environmental impact assessments need to inform decision-making before economic interventions are implemented, and proper contingency and mitigation strategies need to be embedded into legal frameworks to mitigate against harmful events. This research evaluates how one such approach is being implemented in terms of furthering economic development and conserving Endangered species. 

Although the importance of integrating indigenous and local knowledge systems (ILKS) in ocean governance has been established in the literature, there are no clear answers on how best to do this in practice. Simultaneously, there is a lack of research on the cultural dimensions of environmental management and conservation, and cultural interactions with coastal environments remain poorly understood in South Africa and beyond. Culture plays a significant role in ILKS, but also in existing ocean governance strategies more broadly and failing to properly recognise its importance can hinder collaborative management, reduce trust, and reproduce social inequalities. The study uses a transdisciplinary mixed methods approach involving arts-based participatory research (ABPR) and participatory community mapping (PCM) with ILKS holders in Algoa Bay, South Africa. The findings highlight important cultural connections to the ocean and coast, such as intangible cultural heritage and spiritual importance that impact the use and significance of specific coastal areas. These connections and values are often reported to conflict with current economic priorities in the Bay, but are simultaneously found to often align with conservation efforts. For more inclusive futures for local coastal communities, this knowledge should be integrated into area-based ocean management approaches such as marine spatial planning and the development and management of marine protected areas. Furthermore, greater attention should be paid to the common goals of socio-cultural and conservation dimensions of protected and conserved areas, where methods such as ABPR and PCM prove useful. The study concludes that knowledge co-production efforts with ILKS holders need to be prioritised to ensure the integration of cultural heritage and cultural connections in ocean conservation and area-based ocean management processes in the future.

The 1st Southern African Mountain Conference (SAMC2022) was held, under UNESCO patronage, in the KwaZulu-Natal part of the Maloti-Drakensberg mountains, South Africa, in March 2022, with strong support from mountain research groups and sponsors locally and abroad. The 1st Southern African Mountain Conference (SAMC2022) was held at Champagne Sports Resort in the KwaZulu-Natal, part of the Maloti-Drakensberg, in March 2022, South Africa, under UNESCO patronage, and with strong support from mountain research groups and sponsors locally and abroad. SAMC2022 was co-planned by the Afromontane Research Unit (University of the Free State), the African Mountain Research Foundation (a UK Charitable Company), and the Global Mountain Safeguard Programme (United Nations University & Eurac Research). SAMC2022 was the first in a series of planned "SAMC" events (every 3 years) to promote a stronger research community of practice for southern African mountains – some of the most poorly studied holistically in the world. SAMC2022 sought to bring together key stakeholders in the scientific, policy, practitioner, and livelihood sectors, leading to stronger cooperation for mountains, and providing a strong science-policy-industry interface and deeper transboundary engagement. SAMC2022 was supported by 259 delegates (21 countries); 71 (27%) of delegates were from countries other than South Africa; 166 papers were presented in 27 sessions in 6 parallel tracks. A high-level special event hosted by UNESCO Southern Africa set a very strong tone for stronger regional interest in mountains at a policy level including a potential "Southern African Mountain Convention" or treaty under the Southern African Development Community. Key outcomes and priorities from SAMC2022 are (i) to drive stronger regional research collaboration across borders, which SAMC2022 very effectively provided the networking opportunity for; (ii) drive a stronger science-policy-practitioner interface at multiple scales, from provincial to trans-boundary; (iii) capacity building for stronger regional research and representation on global platforms will be crucial for achieving sustainable mountain development in southern Africa; and (iv) encourage cross-disciplinary work on individual mountain systems. The way forward is to (i) keep encouraging the existing community of practice in their activities and efforts, by replacing competition with cooperation and collegiality; (ii) invest in enthusiastic young researchers, policymakers, and practitioners; and (iii) drive strategic high-level advocacy, such as with UNESCO, SADC, and in time the AU, for regional co-operation at a political level for southern African mountains.

South Africa is considered one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world. It has a high rate of endemism and diverse ecosystems. While it occupies only 2% of the world's land surface area, South Africa is home to over 95,000 species, contributing a significant proportion to world plant species (6%), reptile species (5%), bird species (8%), and mammal species (6%), with more species regularly discovered and described. It is important to understand which areas are considered threatened species no-go areas in order to conserve this biodiversity. The Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) has established an online, open-access national environmental screening tool (EST). Since 5 July 2019, by law, a report generated by the screening tool must accompany all environmental impact assessments. Using the underlying data from the EST, the Endangered Wildlife Trust has created a threatened species no-go mapping tool. This builds on the foundation of the EST to fill several important gaps but primarily to identify areas of significant biodiversity impact, especially for species of conservation concern, if a development was to be approved. These threatened species no-go areas are not legally mandated by DFFE but should be considered priority areas to avoid for any prospective developer, given their high sensitivity. In this presentation, we present the map and describe who should use it, how to use it, how the no-go areas are defined, and the potential for further applied usage.

Shepstone Lake is in northern KwaZulu-Natal, 26 km southeast of Newcastle. The lake is an inland pan formed within a depression fed by four small non-perennial streams/channels with a wetland system found on its western side. The lake is 44 ha in size and has a total catchment area of 385 ha. Shepstone Lake is a closed system in that it is cut off from the drainage systems of the area. The estimated runoff contribution to the pan's hydrology is approximately 40%, implying that groundwater, which is geologically controlled, constitutes a major water supply to the ecosystem. The lake waters are highly alkaline (pH 9.4) and host biota with a wide tolerance for environmental variation. It is reportedly an important post-breeding habitat for Maccoa Duck (currently IUCN classified as "Endangered"). The lake has formed as a response to geological movements resulting from regional tectonic extension, the emplacement of dolerite and the development of faults and fractures. It appears that this process is still ongoing and that the basin continues to subside. The three distinct structural events – which may or may not be synchronous – include 1) The emplacement of a "blind" dolerite dyke followed by subsidence – related to cooling and contraction of the molten material as well as extension of the crust, which occurred simultaneously. This event defined the formation of the Shepstone Lake basin and its alignment, 2) The development of a west-east trending graben structure and the development of two sub-basins, and 3) The formation of numerous lineaments. An air photo interpretation in the vicinity of Shepstone Lake revealed that 75% of these lineaments are developed within four distinct populations, with a very strong relationship between the lake and the point at which the four different lineament sets intersect. It is, therefore, apparent that the lake and the lineaments have a definite association. It is concluded that geology is integral to the formation and sustainability of Shepstone Lake. Therefore, the area should be conserved on biodiversity and geological grounds. The challenge is that important geological phenomena are not uniformly considered in the types of protected areas specified in the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003).

Ngazidja Island (Grande Comore) is the largest island (1,148 km²) in the Union of the Comoros and has an active volcano near its southern end. Until now, the island did not have a vegetation map that included all its plant formations. The objective of the present study was to develop the most complete map possible. The remote sensing approach was used at two scales (1:250,000 and 1:10,000). Floristic field collections based on Duvigneaud's (1969) transect method made it possible to study the Principal Component Analysis of the island's bioclimatic, ecological, and topographical factors. The map generated includes a phytogeographical nomenclature in accordance with the different types of environments and the distribution of plant formations marked by a landscape with a recent lava flow. Two major regions are defined. The first region is concentric with four domains, some of which are azonal such as the halophilic formations initially of the littoral type but subdivided into several lagoon sites by the lava flows. Others are zonal and classified as the dry domain (dry forest stunted by the magmatic rock soil), the subhumid domain (transformed into a relic of subhumid forest by man), the humid domain (banana plantation under degraded forest at medium altitude and savannah with coconut trees at low altitude), and the super humid domain (dense evergreen forest). The second region includes two domains only observed on this island and located in the Karthala massif in the south. They are characterised by the direction of the monsoon wind: a transitional forest under the east wind and a montane thicket exposed to the west wind. Although refugia areas are usually of climatic origin, three of the eight refugia areas identified in this study are of volcanic origin, and one is of climatic and volcanic origin. This study generated a map with twelve vegetation formations, six of which were described for the first time. The spatial mapping of these vegetation formations can be used to inform policy and planning for their future development and conservation.

Mozambique has some 2,740 km of coastline characterised by a variety of ecosystems, both marine and terrestrial. In this study, we assessed the status of two threatened plant species, Icuria dunensis and Warneckea sessilicarpa, from the coastal zones of Nampula and Zambézia provinces in the Rovuma Endemism Centre. These two provinces comprise a remarkable complex of harmoniously interacting ecosystems that result in a highly productive coastal zone. We identified seven systems within the study area, namely: foredune system, estuarine system, coastal dune thicket, palm thicket or palm savanna, coastal dune forest, coastal lakes or lagoons, and streams and rivers. Six sites of I. dunensis forest and nine of W. sessilicarpa were mapped. The size and number of individual plants (including seedlings/saplings) were estimated at these locations along about 425 km of the coast. The Icuria forest in Mongicual (Nampula) is the largest in the study area and is facing the lowest pressure from local human communities. A new population of Icuria forest was discovered at the top of Serra Mesa in Matibane, Nampula, probably preserved due to its inaccessibility. We also discovered a new population of W. sessilicarpa from Moebase (Zambézia ) to Mossuril (Nampula), and the largest population of this species was recorded from Quinga to Mongicual in Nampula. The Mozambican flora comprises approximately 7,500 species, of which about 600 are endemic/near-endemic, and 477 have been assessed for Red Data List status. The Rovuma Endemism Centre contains the second-highest number of endemic species in Mozambique and about 50% of the ecosystem is threatened. The Rovuma Endemism Centre has 17 proposed important plant areas but lacks protected areas such as national parks or reserves, thus posing a further threat to the rare and endemic plants in the region. Mining companies that are the main drivers of habitat degradation in the Rovuma Endemism Centre and the primary factor contributing to the loss of these threatened species should be sensitised to implement the existing offset laws. 

Widespread species of Least Concern, according to IUCN criteria, often do not receive priority research attention. Early taxonomic research provided evidence of significant intraspecific variation in many of these species. Two widespread genera of small mammals associated with rocky habitats in southern Africa provide examples of this variation. There are up to 16 subspecies of Namaqua rockmouse (Micaelamys namaquensis) described; currently, four subspecies show strong geographic association with particular vegetation types. In the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), up to 17 subspecies were classified in the past, yet despite this and extensive geographic variation, the species is listed as monotypic across its African and Arabian distribution. DNA sequences of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b gene revealed cryptic diversity in both species across southern Africa, with three divergent lineages in the rock hyrax and eight lineages in the Namaqua rockmouse. The diversity and differentiation detected within the latter species represents a species complex, and divergence times between lineages suggest a Late Miocene to Pliocene radiation. Similarly, the split between the rock hyrax lineages dates to the past 10-15 MY, followed by Pleistocene-driven diversity detected within lineages. The phylogeographic variation highlights the importance of the Great Escarpment and associated mountain ranges, as well as finer scale spatiotemporal habitat changes across southern Africa, in driving diversification and diversity in these taxa. By understanding the dynamics in these common, widespread species, we can extrapolate to more range-restricted taxa. Through analysis of past responses to climate- and habitat changes, we may be able to better model changes linked to anthropogenic and ongoing global change. 

Golden moles (Chrysochloridae) represent one of the most threatened mammal groups in southern Africa. Four species occur along the west coast of South Africa, two of which are threatened with extinction. Vast stretches of the coastal dune habitats characteristic of the west coast have been severely impacted by alluvial diamond mining over the past century. Rapidly developing residential areas and agriculture have added to the transformation in these areas, particularly over the past two decades. Naturally, this decline in habitat has resulted in population declines in the subterranean-dwelling golden moles inhabiting these dune ecosystems, prompting concern about their continued survival. Little is known about the biology and ecology of these species, and research has been limited by the challenge of capturing and/or studying these subterranean animals in the wild. Environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling has attracted worldwide attention over the past few years as an emerging approach to characterising and monitoring biodiversity and has become particularly important for rare, elusive, or endangered species. The application of eDNA has the potential to revolutionise conservation science and practice and has opened the door to a promising non-invasive means to study golden moles. We investigated the use of DNA barcoding from soil eDNA in (1) detecting rare/elusive/threatened species and (2) as a tool to investigate and potentially monitor range distributions of these species. Through extensive eDNA sampling along the west coast of South Africa, we have refined the distributions of the four golden mole species thought to occur there, and specifically determine whether De Winton's golden mole, Cryptochloris wintoni (IUCN Critically Endangered; Possibly Extinct) is extinct. Furthermore, we detected cryptic diversity in Eremitalpa granti. We observed a significant decrease in golden mole abundance across areas impacted by mining activities, which continue to pose an existential threat to these animals. 

Golden moles are one of the most threatened mammal groups in Africa, with 12 of the 21 species listed on the IUCN Red List as Threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) or Near Threatened and three as Data Deficient. The primary known threat is habitat transformation from residential, commercial, and agricultural development. Conservationists, in general, have remained largely ignorant of their plight, and there have been no concerted efforts to conserve golden moles or to develop targeted conservation strategies. In 2019, the Endangered Wildlife Trust and the University of Pretoria initiated an environmental DNA (eDNA) project to locate and determine the range of two Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species, namely the De Winton's (Cryptochloris wintoni) and Van Zyl's (Cryptochloris zyli) golden mole. Since then, we have been expanding this work to other golden mole species across South Africa. This year, we set out to develop a multi-species action plan for nine threatened South African golden mole species and establish the foundation for implementation of this plan with secured role-player commitments. By engaging with stakeholders, we have gained a consolidated understanding of the conservation efforts undertaken to date and the capacity to address conservation management going forward. We hosted four workshops across South Africa, with participation from relevant conservation research and management stakeholders, alongside field trips involving eDNA collections for all nine species. The workshops provided a fantastic platform to promote awareness, develop a unique understanding of the conservation challenges facing golden moles, and develop a multi-species action plan that clarifies roles and responsibilities and facilitates the implementation of conservation strategies for golden moles. 

South Africa is ranked the third most biologically diverse country in the world. Most of the communities living close to natural resources are previously disadvantaged, facing challenges such as lack of development and job opportunities. Coupled with a growing population, the country faces increased pressure on its natural resources. This raises a need for tools that enhance the protection of natural resources whilst creating opportunities to improve human livelihoods. The biodiversity economy in the South African context entails businesses and activities that directly or indirectly depend on biodiversity for their core operation or contribute to biodiversity conservation through their activity. The biodiversity economy programme was seen by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, through the Biodiversity Economy Lab, as a tool to be employed in supporting the country's efforts to leverage the potential of the wildlife and biodiversity sectors as drivers of economic growth and expansion of protected areas. The implementation of the biodiversity economy programme followed a nodal approach which involved the identification of areas with high biodiversity value and potential for economic growth to be used as catalysts for the establishment of relevant economic activities through the wildlife, eco-tourism, and bioprospecting sectors. In KwaZulu-Natal, two nodes were identified, namely the Umfolozi Biodiversity Economy Node (UBEN) and the Isimangaliso Node. The UBEN was the first to be established as a pilot node in 2017. Since its inception, the UBEN has seen several successes, of course not without challenges. This presentation seeks to share highlights, challenges, and recommendations collected from various stakeholders directly or indirectly involved in the implementation of the node, aimed at sharing lessons for nodes yet to be established. The preliminary data in this presentation is to be gathered using a questionnaire that will be distributed to government, private, and non-governmental organisations as well as community representatives involved in the UBEN. These stakeholders have been part of the UBEN since its inception, making their insight invaluable.

Invasive trees and bush encroachment spread at an alarming rate in South Africa with many adverse consequences on a range of environmental services, including water management and biodiversity-related consequences for grasslands and other ecosystems. The main species have been targeted over the last 25 years by the ambitious Working for Water Programme, which falls way short of the needs. One promising way to fill this gap is to harness value-added industries that would process the resulting biomass; bioenergy production is an obvious candidate in the context of the Just Energy Transition. But the business case remains shaky. As the Just Energy Transition is motivated primarily by climate change mitigation, a proposition is to connect bioenergy production based on invasive trees to carbon accounting. The outcome depends on the reference scenarios considered in the absence of bioenergy and for which various lines of reasoning can be applied. For instance, invasive trees must be logged according to the law, so should it be the reference scenario? Also, once trees are logged and stockpiled without processing, they decay and release methane and carbon into the atmosphere. If bioenergy is considered carbon neutral based on carbon accounting rules, then what about carbon pricing as an incentive to support bioenergy value chains? The carbon tax in South Africa is low by international standards ( USD 10/tCO2e) and likely insufficient to make bioenergy competitive against coal. Increasing the carbon tax in the country would make the energy sector less competitive at first, but would boost investments in alternative energy sectors with longer-term gains. To make that happen, the increase in carbon tax should be accompanied by carbon accounting rules that acknowledge (i) the necessity to remove invasive trees for climate change adaptation reasons, and (ii) the climate change mitigation contribution obtained through energy substitution.

Linear infrastructure is essential for connecting society: our systems of roads, railways, pipelines, canals, and power lines all serve to link our cities, developments, and resources, and our energy and water supplies. Therefore, it is perhaps ironic that linear infrastructure does exactly the opposite for natural systems - by crisscrossing landscapes, linear infrastructure serves to fragment ecosystems, isolate populations, reduce natural flows, and constrain animal movements. Transportation infrastructure poses direct threats to species from collisions and indirect threats by increasing access by people to previously untapped resources. In many ways, Africa represents the final frontier for infrastructure development. Her population has doubled in the last three decades and currently stands at 1.3 billion. As populations and economies grow, they require greater investments in infrastructure. Over the next few decades, we will need significant investments in railways, roads, energy, and other infrastructure to meet the growing demands of emerging African economies. The Endangered Wildlife Trust's Wildlife and Transport Programme is working to reduce the negative impacts of transport infrastructure on biodiversity. Here we present some of our work over the past decade and discuss opportunities to build on lessons from elsewhere in the globe - to find the sweet spot between economic growth and ecological resilience before irreversible damage is done.

South Africa's extensive linear infrastructure network (which includes roads and power lines) is severely impacting the country's historically recognised five primate species: greater or thick-tailed bushbaby (Otolemur crassicaudatus), southern lesser bushbaby (Galago moholi), chacma baboon (Papio ursinus), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), and samango monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis). We present South African mortality data from two different linear infrastructure types on a country-wide scale over a long-term sampling period. Using primate road mortality and power line electrocution data acquired from different data sources, we compare and discuss different mortality data collection methodologies, resulting data quality, and identify current limitations in understanding the direct impacts of linear infrastructure. This information has important implications for primate conservation planning. Of the 483 primate mortalities recorded on roads and power lines between 1996-2021, the majority were on the former. Vervet monkeys were most severely impacted by both linear infrastructure types, whereas lesser bushbabies experienced the least number of mortalities. Both data sets showed numerous incidents of multiple deaths (roadkill: 4%, up to four killed in one incident; electrocutions: 13%, up to six killed in one incident). GPS coordinates were available for 61% of roadkill records and 65% of electrocution records. Age or sex of carcasses was unavailable for electrocution records and only available for 11% of roadkill records. Although South Africa leads the African continent regarding roadkill and electrocution data collection, there are still areas for improvement in the collection protocol. Examples include equipping patrol teams with data collection equipment that automatically records GPS points and providing a tracking function in the Road Watch mobile phone app. Furthermore, projects implementing mitigation measures (e.g., canopy bridges) to reduce primate roadkill are lacking. We argue that the mortality data presented here should form the basis for future mitigation implementation and recommend that linear infrastructure be more prominently recognised as a direct threat when developing national and international red lists. We suggest that a centralised, global, open-access linear infrastructure mortality database could be beneficial for mainstreaming this information into conservation and land use planning. 

As human development continues to increase, so does the density of road networks and other anthropogenic structures, leading to increased impacts on the natural environment. In KwaZulu-Natal Province, the Zululand area forms a hotspot of biodiversity, with parks such as Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP) and iSimangaliso Wetland Park (IWP) acting as large draw cards for ecotourism. As such, there is high vehicle traffic in these protected areas. Additionally, major provincial roads bisect HiP and IWP. Most studies have focused on the difficulties large mammals face in these parks and have neglected the smaller vertebrates. As such, this group has been severely under-represented in park management programmes that aim to reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVCs). This study aimed to identify and compare the species assemblage of vertebrate WVCs, along the R618 provincial road that bisects HiP and the R22 that passes through the central section of IWP. Repeated two-hour driven surveys were conducted monthly at sunrise and sunset. Records were kept of the identities, global positioning system (GPS) coordinates of geographical localities, photographs, measurements of distances to road shoulder and brush, road and habitat characteristics, the presence of existing traffic calming and crossing structures, and climatic conditions of each carcass found. Carcass recordings along the study roads total 721 to date, with 390 and 331 for HiP and IWP, respectively. HiP is represented by 72 species with 120 unidentified carcasses, and IWP by 59 species with 99 unidentified carcasses. Recorded mortalities per class in HiP included 87 mammals, 74 birds, 54 reptiles and 175, and in IWP, 83 mammals, 63 birds, 84 reptiles and 101 frogs. The results of this study indicate a need for increased traffic calming and crossing structures along the areas in question. The data will also inform computational models to determine the ideal location and type of mitigation measures that should be implemented.

A growing body of research has highlighted concerns about the increasing negative impacts of linear infrastructure development on natural habitats and biodiversity inside protected areas. Road corridors, in particular, have numerous threats to wildlife with the most noticeable direct impact being roadkill, and this requires urgent conservation interventions. In this study, we surveyed amphibian roadkill for 70 days divided over two periods on three regional roads traversing the western Soutpansberg in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, Limpopo Province, an important area for biodiversity conservation in South Africa. A combined 100 km transect comprising the three sampled roads was driven at a speed of ∼30 km h-1 commencing 1.5 hr after sunrise with the driver as the observer. Six habitat types were identified along the monitored road stretches, and their influence on the occurrence of amphibian roadkill was determined. The results comprised an inventory of 248 roadkill specimens belonging to eight species in six families with one unidentified specimen. Roadkill was strongly influenced by season, with the greatest roadkill rate recorded in the early wet season (0.051 roadkill-1 km-1 day) compared to the late wet season (0.019 roadkill-1 km-1 day). Amphibian roadkill patterns were related to roadside habitat. Of the roadside habitat types identified, road sections adjacent to water bodies had the highest number of roadkill, followed by road sections closer to open savanna bushland. Roadkill frequency was low in areas that were partly located in human-modified habitats (residential and agricultural areas) and highest in natural landscapes (near water bodies and savanna bushland). The study provides baseline data that confirms the potential threat of roads and road users to the persistence of amphibians in Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, and presents the first systematic inventory of amphibian roadkill in western Soutpansberg, South Africa. Since amphibians tend to use roads to navigate between habitat fragments when they disperse, we recommend that roads be made safer for them with structures such as road verge barrier fencing combined with amphibian crossing tunnels. Road infrastructure development policies need to be reviewed to promote the establishment of green transport infrastructure.

The Endangered Albany adder, Bitis albanica, is under serious threat of extinction caused by continued habitat loss and may have already become extinct in several historical locations in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. B. albanica is an elusive and cryptic viper, and despite intensive surveys, there have only been 40 confirmed sightings since 2016, including eight road mortalities. This research aimed to assess methods of detection and capture, improve knowledge of occupancy and predictors of detection on roads, and assess the threat of road mortalities for this species. A cross-sectional observation survey was conducted at a wind energy facility north of Algoa Bay, using a combination of drift fence surveys with pitfall and funnel traps and road-cruise surveys by car and bicycle. During 23 days in October 2021, road-cruise surveys by car were the most effective (0.06/hr) and only method to detect B. albanica (n=6). Bicycle surveys detected more reptiles (0.56/hr) and roadkill (1.64 rk/hr) than car surveys (0.45 reptile/hr and 0.18 rk/hr). Kernel estimates of intensity for invertebrate roadkill and live reptile detections showed similar hotspots at higher traffic and land-use areas. A single-season site occupancy model predicted increased detection probabilities on wider roads, in the late afternoon/evening, on days without rain or cloud cover, but overall these remained low, between < 0.01 and 0.03 (95% CI: 0, 0.18). Detecting B. albanica required a high level of effort however, using a range of methods informs future research and will help inform critical conservation recommendations. Roadkill hotspots across taxa were a useful proxy to target road mitigation and temporal changes in detection to direct times of traffic moderation. For future research, a bicycle is a promising method for live reptile and roadkill surveys however, in dense vegetation, trapping using less labour-intensive camera traps along drift fences may prove more efficient. 

Many studies on Land Use Land Cover Changes (LULCC) suggest severe environmental degradation in Africa due to natural vegetation clearing and associated biodiversity loss. However, field observations and recent studies in different parts of Africa indicate the cyclic nature of changes between closed deciduous woodland, wooded grassland, and grassland, and between primary and secondary tropical moist forests. To develop a clear understanding and a critical assessment of current research efforts on the changes and underlying drivers of LULCC in Africa, we provide a global and systematic synthesis of research, aiming at (i) identifying changes in land cover and land use; (ii) determining drivers of change and associated consequences for African vegetation and major ecoregions; and iii) identifying research gaps in the existing literature. Despite the divergence in the way changes are driven in African LULCC, the main driver is the change in agricultural practices through a reduction in fallow duration, unprecedented population growth with associated needs, and climate variabilities. The consequences of these factors on LULCC include the loss of vegetation cover, soil erosion, and reduction of agricultural yields in specific areas. Studies have shown that shifts in the forest cover could be linked to poverty, the need for cultivated land, and the introduction of market-oriented agriculture systems. The main challenge is to develop and implement appropriate context-specific land management strategies combined with population growth control. There is a need to compute long-term on-site data to assess change in land cover and the associated contribution of climate change. Moreover, the relationship between human activities/population growth and the environment causing changes in land cover calls for conservation action for a sustainable balance between agricultural production and conservation. There is a need for agreement on a common method to study LULCC for consistent and comparable results in Africa

In South Africa, macadamia has been one of the fastest-growing tree crop industries, and the country is currently the world's largest producer of macadamias. However, the expansion of orchards is associated with habitat and biodiversity loss. We have been monitoring the value of ecosystem service provision with regard to pest control by insectivorous bat species, as well as the proactive management of bat communities in this agroecosystem for almost a decade. We found that the value of insect pest control by bats in macadamias ranges between 57 and 5000 US$ per hectare per year, depending on the model used, the surrounding vegetation, and whether birds were included. Looking at the activity and habitat use of bats in and around orchards, the most important factor influencing bat communities was the proximity to natural or semi-natural vegetation. An abundance of insects and water availability are also key. In conclusion, a heterogeneous landscape in and around orchards which provides natural habitat promotes the activity and diversity of bat species and their ecosystem service provision. Ensuring these semi-natural vegetation patches remained intact even outweighed the negative impacts of yield losses caused by crop-raiding monkeys. Installing bat houses and ponds may be another option to improve natural pest control services. There are also ecologically friendly recommendations for natural pest control alternatives such as parasitoids. Any successful long-term control of pest insect damage in macadamia requires an integrated pest management (IPM) approach. There are still vast research gaps which not only concern ecosystem service provision in macadamia orchards but translate to many other crops, such as the influence of pesticides on bat physiology and activity and the importance of rare species such as the horseshoe bat for insect pest control

The agricultural sector represents a potentially influential set of stakeholders in biodiversity conservation and ecological infrastructure. Agricultural practices can greatly influence biodiversity and ecological functioning, both negatively and positively. On the other hand, farmers are the custodians of large areas of natural and semi-natural habitats. This presents collaborative opportunities between farmers and conservation institutions. In the Limpopo Province of South Africa, approximately 15% of ZZ2-managed land is intensively developed for agricultural purposes, and approximately 18% is actively conserved as conservancies. The remainder serves as grazing, forestry, or natural ecological support areas. Currently, ZZ2 participates in five biodiversity stewardship projects, whereby land parcels of high biodiversity and ecosystem services value will be proclaimed as formal conservation areas under the National Protected Areas Act. These high biodiversity areas are located around the ZZ2 production sites and serve as natural ecological support areas that offer ecosystem services such as attracting pollinators and preserving water quality. Ecosystem services play a crucial role in agricultural production therefore, the protection of these ecological support areas should be prioritised by the agricultural sector. Using a framework of interconnectedness between biodiversity and agriculture, this case study presents a real-life approach to exploring the role that conservation-minded agricultural practice can play in realising the goals of biodiversity and ecosystem conservation outside of formally protected areas. Drawing on the experience of relevant biodiversity conservation practices on large-scale fresh produce farms such as ZZ2, this case study explores the potential value of integrating conservation principles with farm management and practices, as well as risks and potential barriers to adoption.

The world's vultures face an uncertain future, largely due to their wide-ranging habits, coupled with multiple anthropogenic threats. To halt the rapid decline of vultures, landscape-level conservation measures accompanied by large-scale stakeholder buy-in are vital. Accordingly, identifying and establishing appropriately sized geographic areas in which targeted conservation measures are undertaken to address the key threats to vultures is increasingly being adopted as a strategy. The Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures has identified the establishment of Vulture Safe Zones (VSZs) as a key action. This concept, which proved successful in addressing the Asian vulture crisis, is being adapted to address Africa's multi-faceted threats to vultures. Project Vulture, through the Zululand Vulture Project, is spearheading the VSZ initiative in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In this region, VSZs can specifically help safeguard the southernmost breeding range of three tree-nesting Endangered and Critically Endangered vulture species. The project engages with willing landowners and managers to establish and manage a network of VSZs. The engagement process has provided a valuable platform and network of support to enable the strengthening of local stakeholders' contributions to vulture conservation in the region. This includes the introduction of lead-free ammunition, increased vigilance for injured or poisoned vultures, reporting of tagged vultures, and the active management of supplementary feeding sites. The VSZ initiative can be an important mechanism to complement national and international efforts to reduce the impact of existing and emerging threats and to promote the recovery of populations. Further improvements will be required to include smaller properties, which do not qualify on their own but have an active role to play. By also serving as an effective awareness-raising tool that builds local support, it has the potential to keep the vulture conservation momentum growing.

The Persistent Conundrum: The variability in ecological observations is well known and gives rise to what is commonly known as 'evidence-based' or 'evidence-informed decision-making.' The problem arises when an observation falls outside the measured variation and when this 'outlier' is correctly or conveniently seen to be 'exceptio probat [nova] regulam in casibus non-exceptis' (the legal axiom 'the exception proves [new] the rule). The Observation: The facts and data recently gathered on a KwaZulu-Natal farm are at odds with conventional crane conservation theory and practice. Over the last eight years, except for one dry year when nesting sites were unsuitable, endangered wattled cranes (Burgeranus carunculatus) have nested and successfully raised their chicks close to actively worked pasture on a large dairy and beef operation on the farm "Shawlands" in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands. A chick tracked through its sub-adult stage using an electronic monitor in 2017 spent more time foraging in pastures, usually amongst dairy cows, than in the adjacent indigenous veld. The pattern has been the same in subsequent years. This seems to suggest that the cranes on Shawlands have become habituated to the presence of cattle in their foraging area and are undisturbed by the operation of farm machinery near their nests. This behaviour contradicts conventional crane conservation strategies, including enforcing buffer zones that prohibit agricultural activities within a 500 m radius of nesting sites. The conservation authorities recommend replacing pastures in these buffer zones with "secondary grassland" comprising a mixture of locally occurring grassland species. This is perceived to be more hospitable to cranes than pasture, but the experience on Shawlands does not bear this out. Insisting on large buffer zones around crane nests will likely provoke farmers to discourage cranes from nesting on their land, ultimately to the detriment of crane conservation. It is essential for crane conservationists to examine the available empirical evidence and review their approach to crane conservation on KwaZulu-Natal farms. This paper provides the praxis for such an approach. 

Understanding where biodiversity is and how it is distributed is crucial to conserving vulnerable and dynamic ecosystems. Although natural forests support greater diversity and are vital for the conservation of organisms, recent studies have argued that monoculture plantations can be used as an alternative habitat for forest species. We investigated how ant diversity patterns and assemblage composition vary between monoculture timber plantations and adjacent natural forests. Ants were sampled in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands of South Africa using pitfall traps. A total of 326 ants were collected, comprising four subfamilies, 13 genera, and 30 species. The blue gum (spp.) plantations had the highest species diversity compared to other habitats. Although two species were found exclusively in the natural forest, it had the lowest ant diversity. Generally, species assemblages between the compared plantations and the natural forests were distinct. Monoculture plantations affect ant communities, leading to a change in their distribution patterns and assemblage composition. Determining how these rapidly expanding plantations affect biodiversity at different scales is essential for preserving indigenous fauna. Although our findings proposed that blue gum plantations have more potential to conserve ant taxonomic diversity than pine (spp.) plantations, we recommend that future studies investigate the response of ant functional diversity to monoculture timber plantations in the region.

The genus Desmodium is widespread globally, and although the genus and its invasive impacts are well studied in other parts of the world, the distribution and invasive impacts of some species in South Africa are not well known. A need exists to assess the invasion status of naturalised species in South Africa. This study aimed to assess the distribution of three naturalised Desmodium species in South Africa; Desmodium tortuosum, D. uncinatum, and D. incanum, and to conduct a risk analysis. Distribution and habitat data were collected from herbarium specimens, field trips, and the Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas database. The Risk Analysis for Alien Taxa framework was used to assess and analyse the invasion risk and classify the species under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 (NEM: BA) regulations. Our results indicate that D. tortuosum and D. incanum are distributed along the coastal region from the Eastern Cape and extend northwards to Limpopo, whilst D. uncinatum is abundant in Mpumalanga with disjunct populations in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. Preliminary results of the risk analysis classified all three naturalised species as category 1b under NEM: BA. This is the first contribution to understanding the invasion risks of naturalised Desmodium taxa in South Africa. 

The Directorate on Biodiversity Evidence in the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) receives funds annually from the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment for (amongst other functions) detection and management of selected (emerging) Invasive Alien Species (IAS) with the goal of eradication. However, relatively short-term clearing contracts on the ground, administered annually (to link with annual budget transfers), present practical challenges such as a) delays in rapid response to target species sighting reports received at any time of year; b) clearing times not aligned with individual species biology for maximum impact; and c) extended periods in-between initial control and follow-up treatments, which could facilitate the recovery of treated populations. SANBI implemented the para-ecologist model in 2019 to address some of these gaps. In summary, this resulted in increased full-time staff capacity to improve early detection:rapid response (EDRR) effectiveness and efficiency. Between May 2019 and April 2022, the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) -appointed para-ecologists cleared small (localised) populations of ten target species, mainly along the coastal and midlands region of the province, and identified larger populations which feed directly into clearing plans of the annually appointed clearing teams. Para-ecologists have conducted structured species surveys resulting in increased detection of more than 600 populations of 14 target species and identified 24 potential high-risk sites across six municipalities for emerging IAS surveillance. Para-ecologists have also contributed to outreach and expansion of the regional footprint amongst the private sector and traditional authorities. This advocated the importance of our work and the "nip it in the bud" rationale, soliciting buy-in and support of our projects, e.g. responding quicker to sighting reports from the public and obtaining land-owner permission for clearing teams. Overall, the para-ecologist model has shown many benefits. This presentation, which highlights some of the key activities and achievements of the KZN para-ecologists over three years, including lessons learned and challenges, will benefit other departments who wish to implement a similar "out of the box" approach to tackling IAS.

In South Africa, water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) has taken advantage of eutrophic water systems, including in the Hartbeespoort Dam. The release of the biological control agent Megamelus scutellaris has, however, successfully managed the populations by feeding on the plant. In January 2021, when water hyacinth had declined significantly, Salvinia minima invaded the Hartbeespoort Dam. In Florida, USA, a strain of the biological control agent Cyrtobagous salviniae has successfully managed S. minima. This strain has now been imported to South Africa and is in quarantine, undergoing final host-specificity testing. Previous competition studies have suggested that the impact of invertebrate herbivory will become more noticeable when grazed plants are competing with other plants for resources due to a reduction in host plant vigour. This study investigates the competitive ability of both plants with and without their respective biological control agent to determine the impact of biological control when the two plants are competing for resources. This will allow for better prediction of the population dynamics of the two invasive weeds at the Hartbeespoort Dam. Furthermore, we aim to investigate if water hyacinth is allelopathic to S.minima. Our experiments are still ongoing, but our preliminary results indicate that water hyacinth remains the dominant species, however, its competitive ability is reduced with the introduction of the biological control, M.scutellaris. 

Global amphibian populations are on the decline, and invasive fish are known to have a major impact on many threatened species. South Africa has a rich history of invasive fish introductions and a high establishment success rate. The most common sites for continuous fish introductions are headwater mountain streams. These streams are home to ghost frogs, an endemic family (Heleophrynidae) of amphibians found along the escarpment in permanent streams of South Africa. Preliminary studies have identified significant negative impacts of invasive trout on two ghost frog species. This study aims to investigate whether these negative impacts are reflected across a broader scale. Tadpoles of two species, Heleophryne regis and H. purcelli, were sampled in the presence and absence of invasive fish across 26 streams in the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces. Tadpoles were sampled via standardised kick-sampling, whilst electrofishing was used to sample fish. Important habitat variables were measured to account for the influence of the environment on the observed tadpole abundance. Data analysis involved two approaches using generalised linear mixed models. The first approach used a tadpole occurrence model to better understand the effect of the environment on where tadpoles are located. The presence of invasive fish had a negative, but not statistically significant effect on tadpole occurrence. pH and oxygen saturation were the only two environmental variables to have a statistically significant effect on tadpole occurrence. The second approach involved a generalised linear mixed model with tadpole abundance as the dependent variable to understand the effect of the independent variables on tadpole abundance. Invasive fish had a statistically significant negative effect on tadpole abundance. Environmental variables with significant effects on tadpole abundance include pH, oxygen saturation, temperature, and electroconductivity. Our results are in accordance with the findings of previous studies. We conclude that invasive fish have significant negative impacts on ghost frog tadpoles. However, the effect of the environment should not be overlooked. Identifying suitable ghost frog habitat before taking action can help make cost-effective conservation decisions. For example: choosing between upgrading protection at uninvaded sites or increasing eradication efforts at invaded locations 

Alien and invasive species (AIS) are at the forefront of biodiversity loss. They cause imbalances in ecosystems by bringing about competition for resources and space, and can become predators of native species. These factors are direct contributors to biodiversity loss. The European wild boar (Sus scrofa) is listed in the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (No. 10 of 2004) Alien and Invasive Species List as a category 1b species. As a category 1b species, wild boar threaten our biodiversity, and thus their prevalence must be managed and controlled. We sent out surveys to stakeholders to determine where wild boar prevail within the KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. From our survey results, three crop farms in the Midlands area were selected as study sites based on known wild boar prevalence. We performed camera trap surveys using trail cameras. The results at our selected study sites showed no feral wild boar populations. However, there are incidents of escaped wild boar from nearby pig farms. Management of the species should be directed at pig farmers to prevent escapes. Moreover, the legislation for wild boar prevalence can be improved by clearly defining the requirements for farming wild boar to prevent the establishment of feral populations due to escapes. 

At the 7th CBD Conference of the Parties (COP) in 2004, countries agreed to the Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA), one of the most ambitious environmental strategies in history. This was the first major intergovernmental commitment to refer to Protected Area Management Effectiveness (PAME) and set targets for assessing the effectiveness and responding to the findings. However, by 2020, despite progress in assessing PAME at site and national level, most assessments of progress towards achieving the CBD's 2010 Aichi Target 11 were based on protected area coverage and the quantitative benchmarks rather than on effectiveness. The target calls for an effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). Since 2010 PAME data have been gathered by UNEP-WCMC and IUCN and housed in the Global Database on Protected Areas Management Effectiveness (GD-PAME). As of late 2020, data had been supplied by 169 countries globally, using many different PAME methodologies. The most recent full analysis of this data, in 2018, found data from nearly 22,000 different protected areas, meaning that 21% of countries had met the CBD PoWPA PAME target of having at least 60% of their protected area coverage assessed on land, and 16% of countries met the target in the ocean. However, reporting on undertaking an assessment and reporting on assessment results is a very different thing. The last comprehensive global study, published in 2010, found that 40% of protected areas had major deficiencies. No equivalent study has been undertaken since, so the global conservation community cannot say with any confidence if this situation has changed. The challenge of taking site- or sometimes system-based assessments and extracting one or two indicators for global effectiveness reporting remains unsolved. However, recommendations for the adoption of a multi-dimensional headline indicator, taking into account the quality of governance, management and conservation outcomes of individual protected areas and OECMs, have been suggested as a mechanism to better report effectiveness in the soon-to-be-agreed Global Biodiversity Framework.

What happens if ecosystems, certain species or natural spaces have a legal personality with the right to exist, to thrive, to regenerate, and to play their role in the web of life? "Rights of nature" is not a new legal concept. At least 29 countries have enacted nature's rights in constitutions, national statutes, and/or local laws. In several countries, courts have recognised legal personhood of natural subjects such as rivers, forests, mountains, glaciers or national parks. A general starting point of the modern legal discourse on rights of nature is Christopher Stone´s germinal article "Should trees have standing? Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects." (Southern California Law Review 45. (1972): 450-501). Stone traced the development of the idea of legal rights, noting that children, the elderly, women, foreigners, and minorities have been treated as without rights in many societies throughout human history. He further points out that legal rights have been extended such that previously rightless people and things, such as companies, have come to be recognised and valued for themselves. He proposed that we give legal rights to natural elements of the environment and to the natural environment as a whole. While the western legal discourse on rights for nature is fairly recent, traditional Indigenous worldviews have long embodied a connection with nature and regarded it as a living ancestor. From this worldview arises the responsibility to protect nature as kin. Examples of countries that recognise rights of nature through legislation include: (i) New Zealand, where nature is recognised as "indivisible and living whole" or "a legal personality, in its own right" (Agreement between the Crown (the State) and Maori iwi, later included in law through the Te Awa Tupua Act (2017) (Whanganui River) and the Te Urewera Act (2014)); (ii) Ecuador where the 2008 Constitution states that "Nature or Pachamama, where life is reproduced and exists, has the right to exist, persist, maintain itself and regenerate its own vital cycles, structure, functions and its evolutionary processes." and that "All persons, communities, peoples and nations can call upon public authorities to enforce the rights of nature." (art. 71); and that "Nature has the right to be restored [...]. This restoration shall be apart from the obligation of the State and natural persons or legal entities to compensate individuals and communities that depend on affected natural systems." (art. 72); and (iii) Uganda, where the National Environment Act states that "Nature has the right to exist, persist, maintain and regenerate its vital cycles, structure, functions and its processes in evolution." (2019, No. 5, (7 March 2019) art. 4). We also see developments through jurisprudential practice. In Ecuador, there is a significant volume of case law implementing the constitutional provisions regarding the rights of nature described above, including lawsuits addressing the impaired flow in the Vilcabamba River through hydropower projects. In Colombia, the Supreme Court held that the Colombian Amazon has legal personhood in a climate change case brought by a group of children and young adults. It stated that "for the sake of protecting this vital ecosystem for the future of the planet," it would "recognise the Colombian Amazon as an entity, subject of rights, and beneficiary of the protection, conservation, maintenance and restoration that national and local governments are obligated to provide under Colombia's Constitution" (STC4360-2018 of 5 April 2018). As a remedy, the court ordered the nation and its administrative agencies to ensure a halt to all deforestation by 2020. The court further allocated enforcement power to the plaintiffs and affected communities, requiring the agencies to report to the communities and empowering them to inform the court if the agencies were not meeting their deforestation targets. On the international level, development is slow. Advancements during the early 21st century in international "soft law" have initiated discussions about the potential for integrating nature's rights into legal systems. As of 2019, the United Nations has held nine "Harmony with Nature" General Assembly Dialogues on Earth-centered governance systems and philosophies, including discussions of rights of nature specifically. These dialogues may provide a foundation for the development of a Universal Declaration of the Rights of Nature which, like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, could form the foundation for rights-based nature laws worldwide. In 2012, the Members Assembly of the International Union for Conservation of Nature adopted a resolution calling for a Universal Declaration of the Rights of Nature. The IUCN's World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL) in 2016 issued an "IUCN World Declaration on the Environmental Rule of Law" recognising that "Nature has the inherent right to exist, thrive, and evolve". Currently, WCEL works together with the IUCN Secretariat on a project that aims to initiate a global dialogue for designing and implementing a strategy for dissemination, communication, and advocacy concerning rights of nature. In sum: Recognising rights of nature can contribute to improving governance to protect biodiversity and address climate change as well as pollution. If natural elements are seen as subjects of rights - and no longer as legal objects - the integrity and diversity of nature could be conserved in more effective ways. By recognising rights of nature, law and governance would be based on what is good for the planet Earth (including people and nature) in a holistic, sustainable and long-term manner. It would also enable the defence of nature and ecosystems in court – not only for the benefit of people but for the sake of nature itself. 

This keynote presentation will include an overview of the Rights of Nature approach, its relationship to Earth Jurisprudence and the aspiration to live in harmony with Nature, and of the global movement that is bringing it to fruition. Cormac Cullinan will argue that global conservation goals are unattainable within existing frameworks of law and that the rights of Nature approach is of particular value in achieving the cultural and societal transformations necessary for humanity to co-exist harmoniously with other species. This approach involves drawing on both science and traditional knowledge systems to align human governance systems with the fundamental principles that order Nature to encourage humans to seek well-being through contributing to, rather than undermining, the integrity and vitality of ecosystems. The presentation will also touch on the implications of this approach for conservation in Southern Africa.

Large mammals (megafauna) are important for ecosystem functioning and biodiversity, but megafauna diversity and densities have been severely diminished around the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Thus, an important role appears to be reserved for megafauna restoration in the ambitious ecosystem restoration efforts needed to reverse the global biodiversity crisis. From the perspective of ecology, law and ethics, this research analyses international biodiversity law and policy on megafauna restoration. The research identifies key legal obligations from global treaties like the Convention on Biological Diversity, regional instruments like the SADC Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement, and key ethical principles codified in policy instruments like the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; and interprets these in light of the best available scientific information regarding megafauna and their ecological roles. It is concluded that many governments are under legal and moral obligations to pursue megafauna restoration by enabling natural range expansions and through reintroductions and/or ecological replacement operations. The extent of obligations varies from one country to the next depending on the dimensions of past megafaunal losses and current capabilities. Compared to southern Africa, particularly ambitious megafauna restoration efforts are required of countries in the Global North, including Europe. Depending on the circumstances, international law and policy commitments in this area can directly or indirectly influence megafauna restoration in practice, inter alia by informing the interpretation and application of national law and policy by government agencies and courts in concrete cases. 

Sustainable use is one of the guiding principles for conservation in South Africa. Although originally intended to restrict unsustainable use, today it is most commonly used to justify growing (and sustaining) the commercial use of wild species. This approach to conservation is part of a broader failure in how governance systems relate to the environment and why conventional environmental laws and policies have not, and cannot, stop the decline in biodiversity. Using 'sustainable use' as an overarching principle for conservation fails to recognise that other species are beings with inherent value and rights; it encourages humans to exploit nature and diminishes the source of our well-being. In order to address these flaws, which have contributed to the biodiversity crisis in South Africa and elsewhere, we propose a transformative change in our approach to conservation, guided by the aspiration of 'harmonious co-existence'. Harmonious co-existence within nature is a vision for achieving a transformed relationship where humans relate to other aspects of nature in ways that are either beneficial to or do not harm the integrity of ecosystems and the functioning of the natural processes that sustain life. Achieving this requires (1) the transformation of governance systems to recognise and implement the rights of nature; (2) legal, administrative, and financial means of supporting large-scale ecosystem restoration, 'rewilding', and the re-establishment of biodiversity corridors; (3) legal, administrative, and financial measures to enable communities to act as effective custodians and management authorities of their natural environments; (4) the development of economic opportunities based on non-consumptive relationships with nature; and (5) the incorporation of African philosophies which highlight the importance of maintaining respectful relationships within nature. This transformative and systemic approach is necessary if we hope to address the accelerating biodiversity crisis.

Increasing biodiversity loss, climate change, and the widening rift between rich and poor demand innovative approaches to conserve biodiversity and promote human well-being. South Africa proposes transformation through an Africanised conservation approach that (1) is respectful of, helpful to, values, nurtures, and protects people and communities (Ubuntu), (2) incorporates the One Welfare approach, and (3) promotes fair and equitable sharing of the benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services. An emerging global movement advocates granting legal rights to nature in order to shift from viewing nature as a commodity to a 'living in harmony' perspective, in which the integrity of nature and living species are legally protected. Using the African elephant (Loxodonta) as a case study, we evaluate the potential of the rights of nature approach in the developing world context and demonstrate the importance of (i) viewing people as part of nature and aligning conservation with societal aspirations, (ii) incorporating all values associated with elephants [nature], including often ignored moral values (e.g. equality, intergenerational legacy, human rights that are conducive to reciprocity with nature), and (iii) applying the One Welfare approach to assess the consequences of conservation approaches in terms of rights of nature, including human rights. We suggest that it is not necessary for a legal right for nature, or components of nature, to be in place, as considering rights of nature is required in order to deliver on human rights, as encapsulated in the Environmental Right in Section 24 of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa. By taking an integrated approach, such as envisaged in convivial conservation, we highlight that a true 'living in harmony approach', as encapsulated in Ubuntu, prevents the polarisation of legal human rights against legal rights of nature or a component of nature; we view the latter as neo-colonial, presupposing domination of the one at the expense of the other. Integrating the rights of nature, as well as values, services, and/or benefits of biodiversity, into our conservation approach, provides for win-win outcomes and ecologically sustainable socio-economic development. 

For many years, Nigeria has battled chronic environmental problems that the plethora of existing environmental laws have been ineffective in curbing. These problems have continued to affect humans and ecosystems across the country. The sooner Nigeria's severe environmental degradation is addressed with immediate actions, the better. Given this, there is an urgent need for change, firstly in the perspectives of people towards nature as reflected in their degrading activities - deforestation and illegal mining, amongst others, and secondly, in the mode of curbing the human excesses that are driving climate change. While Nigeria does have some environmental laws, they only serve to limit, but never reverse, degradation. As the existing laws are inadequate and ineffective, granting the rights of nature is a prospective measure for combating these challenges. It establishes legal rights for natural objects like rivers, parks, and forests to enable them to stand in court for themselves, protect themselves from being degraded, and maintain their sanctity to achieve sustainable development goals. Unless nature is granted rights, it will continue to be endlessly exploited as mere property under the law, leading to its continued degradation. Establishing the rights of nature would also bring about an eco-centric attitude (valuing all of nature and all nature's entities) towards the environment, as opposed to an anthropocentric one (giving value to only humans). An eco-centric approach is also increasingly recognised as necessary to attain sustainable development goals. In Nigeria, the rights of nature's recognition and implementation are demonstrated in River Ethiope in the Delta State, making it the first natural African entity go this route. The river, from its source at Umuaja to its mouth at Sapele, is a spinal column for the delta's economy. Communities living in the basin are heavily reliant on the environmental products and services provided by the river, which also supports several hundred fish species and wildlife (including endemic species) and provides vital stopover sites for millions of migratory birds and wildlife. The river catchment faces many challenges, including burgeoning population, poverty, reckless development activities, oil and gas exploration and exploitation, environmental ignorance, and the impact of climate change. The River Ethiope restoration initiative, which started in 1992, aims to integrate environmental concerns into planning and development processes at a catchment level. This paper focuses on the initiative's challenges, achievements, lessons and prospects since 2017. 

Target 3 of the draft post-2020 global biodiversity framework is 'Ensure that at least 30 per cent globally of land areas and of sea areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and its contributions to people, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes' (CBD/SBSTTA/REC/24/2). The proposed headline indicator for monitoring progress towards target 3 is '3.0.1 [Percentage] [Coverage] of protected areas and OECMS, by effectiveness, [ecosystem type,] [KBA/EBSA status]'. The proposed data source and reporting mechanism for monitoring progress towards the 'by effectiveness' component of this indicator requires further development. To support addressing this, UNEP-WCMC, IUCN, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Secretariat co-hosted a series of workshops between November 2021 and March 2022, involving experts on protected areas and Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs), Parties to the CBD, and representatives of indigenous peoples and local communities. These workshops aimed to identify options for calculating draft indicator 3.0.1. This presentation will summarise the results of these workshops. It will outline the options for improved monitoring of effectiveness in the post-2020 global biodiversity monitoring framework, including addressing the limitations of the current system. Drawing on the workshop discussions and outcomes, UNEP-WCMC and partners are developing a roadmap towards a multi-dimensional headline indicator, taking into account the quality of governance, management, and conservation outcomes of individual protected areas and OECMs. This should be complemented by indicators of system-level effectiveness, such as connectivity. The roadmap also outlines a phased approach to calculating draft indicator 3.0.1, with increasingly robust options available as capacity and data availability improve.

Protected areas (PAs) are essential for the conservation of biodiversity. PA management is more important than ever, with increasing human use of natural resources needs, the accelerating climate change, and unmet conservation targets. Several assessment tools have been developed to assist PA organisations in determining the effectiveness of their PA management. Protected Areas Management Effectiveness Evaluation (PAME) provide critical information about threats and management issues at the PA level. However, the findings of these assessments are rarely used to improve PA management and strategic planning. The problem begins with the numerous tools available and with their different capabilities. Many of these tools are not designed to be integrated with the PA planning processes. The Integrated Management Effectiveness Tool (IMET) is designed to aid in the assessment process while also supporting the steps required for strategic planning. In this presentation, we demonstrate how the IMET was used to facilitate the assessment of management effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Kenya and Tanzania and how it assisted the MPA organisations in developing their MPA strategic plans. Specifically, this presentation will show how the IMET can help PA organisations with the following strategic planning tasks: 1. determining their strategic position, 2. prioritising PA objectives, 3. developing or revising their strategies and management plans, and 4. executing and managing the plan. Furthermore, we show how the IMET can be used to improve PA management capacity, communicate with staff and stakeholders, strengthen collaborations and support PAs as they progress towards Green Listing.

Over the last six years, protected area management in the Greater Kruger landscape has undergone considerable change. To better understand this change, its impacts, and management trends, and to increase the social learning of the protected area network, three biennial landscape-level management effectiveness tracking tool assessments (METTs) were undertaken. These METTs were performed for communal, public, and private protected areas across the Greater Kruger landscape in Limpopo and Mpumalanga. Assessments were done in groups, geographic focus groups, and individual reserves (during the assessment cycle that overlapped with COVID). The trends and patterns were assessed by focusing on both management processes as well as management spheres. Results indicate a sizeable variance in general scoring between ownership, management models, and geographies. Trends in score vary across the three assessments, although the general trend is upwards. Scores generally increased where landscape-level interventions related to specific management themes took place. Some management sphere scores have seen minimal improvements, with reserve and landscape-level blockages preventing progress. The study has helped elucidate these blockages, which are being addressed through formal channels with management authorities, land owners, and the mandated environmental authorities in the landscape. The opportunity for co-learning whilst conducting the METTs has also helped entities identify opportunities for collaboration – such as collective action on cultural heritage management interventions. Going forward, the METTs will be repeated in 2024 as a continual commitment to the collective improvement of the management effectiveness of the protected area network.

Activities within the surrounds of protected areas have implications for protected area management. The establishment of buffer zones around protected areas has been implemented as a means of managing the impacts of such activities on the protected areas. A challenge, however, is that these areas are often not under the jurisdiction of protected areas and can, therefore, not be directly managed. Within the South African context, the "Strategy on Buffer Zones for National Parks" calls for the delineation of national park buffer zones and the integration of these buffer zones into spatial development frameworks (SDFs) to facilitate their implementation. This research determines the extent to which national park buffer zones have been integrated into SDFs by reviewing ten SDF case studies representative of nine national parks. The research found that the majority of SDFs fail to integrate buffer zones. The integration of national park buffer zones into SDFs should be promoted and prioritised to ensure that land use development within these zones is managed towards buffer zone objectives.

Communities play a critical role in ensuring the achievement of conservation goals. However, the realisation of the role of communities in conservation issues, and thus solutions, requires an honest look at what influences and drives communities to interact with the environment. Profiling communities adjacent to protected areas allows conservation organisations to understand how the communities view them. Areas of commonality with the potential to be strengthened and areas of dissent where innovative initiatives are required to create a positive and inclusive change, can be identified. Local communities are more likely to participate and commit to finding long-term conservation solutions if they feel that their opinions, knowledge, and overall well-being are being considered. The research conducted surveys with Community Conservation Officers, profiling communities adjacent to Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife protected areas within Ugu, Okhahlamba, and Mkhanyakude districts. The objective was to get an in-depth understanding of the communities neighbouring Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife protected areas, to enable a process to build an effective relationship that benefits both the communities and the management of protected areas. Findings indicated that communities relate differently to protected areas depending on the direct and indirect impacts of having a protected area nearby. Results suggest the need to create access and opportunities and demonstrate site-based benefits to form relationships that unite towards conserving protected areas.

In the 2016 National Council of Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) case, the Constitutional Court observed that "Animal welfare and animal conservation together reflect two intertwined values". Despite this, the Department of Environmental Affairs at the time consistently claimed to have no mandate concerning the welfare of wild animals. This was the argument, too, in the 2017 NSPCA case dealing with the lion bones export quota, yet in that case, the court upheld animal welfare arguments. This paper traces the development of the legal position in South Africa in relation to the welfare of wild animals and considers whether the 'two intertwined values' statement correctly reflected South African law at the time. It considers Bilchitz's arguments on an appropriate approach to wild animal welfare and analyses recent 2022 amendments to the Biodiversity Act that introduce elements of animal well-being into our conservation law, providing an opinion as to the legal position today.

The biodiversity crisis is imminent, with human activities resulting in catastrophic levels of biodiversity loss globally. One million species are likely to become extinct, many within decades unless we reduce the intensity of the drivers of biodiversity loss. Strategic litigation has proven to be one of the most effective means of accelerating action on climate change (with the number of climate change-related cases more than doubling since the Paris Agreement in 2015), but no equivalent approach has been adopted to address the Sixth Mass Extinction. Recently, however, the utility of biodiversity litigation in curbing biodiversity loss has been gaining recognition. Definitions of biodiversity litigation and its elements, as well as trends in biodiversity litigation globally, have emerged, but challenges are faced in bringing matters seeking to protect species and ecosystems to court. Under South African law, there exist legal mechanisms to litigate for the protection of biodiversity, as is evidenced by recent jurisprudence (including Sustaining the Wild Coast NPC & Others v Minister of Mineral Resources and Energy & Others> (Case Number: 3491/2021, 28 December 2021)) and Christian John Adams & Others v Minister of Mineral Resources and Energy & Others (Case Number: 1306/22, 1 March 2022)). These cases demonstrate a shift towards the protection of nature for the benefit of present and future generations. Biodiversity litigation is an emerging field of law, and the presentation provides insights to legal practitioners and conservationists on what to consider when seeking to use litigation as a conservation tool.

Whilst it is not permitted to capture or kill southern African pythons (Python natalensis) in South Africa, the illegal keeping, poaching, and trade in these snakes have increased in recent years. Pythons are used for various purposes by traditional healers, and python skins are used to make fashion items such as shoes, bags, belts, and other accessories. The southern African python is listed as a protected species under Section 56 (1) of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004), which includes indigenous species of a high conservation value or national importance that require national protection. In 2019, the National Council of Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) received information regarding an individual illegally housing snakes in a warehouse and participating in the illegal activity of feeding live animals as prey. The NSPCA acted without hesitation and accessed the property under a warrant. Various welfare concerns were noted, including injuries that were left untreated, underweight animals, snakes that had burn wounds from incorrect lighting, and live rabbits kept as snake food. The feeding of live animals is illegal. Three southern African pythons and all the rabbits were removed from the property by the NSPCA. The pythons were taken to a wildlife veterinary hospital for treatment, and the rabbits were rehomed. The NSPCA initiated the prosecution of those involved in the abuse of the animals, and after two years of the NSPCA following up on the case, finally, justice was served. The Honourable Magistrate Mr Maboho passed down a groundbreaking judgement that has gone on to become the biggest legal win for reptiles in South African history and will have a lasting impact in future cases of cruelty involving reptiles. In a second case two years later, ten southern African pythons were removed under warrant from a captive wildlife facility. The snakes were being kept in unhygienic conditions, were in a state of dehydration, and showed signs of extreme malnourishment. A criminal case for animal cruelty and the illegal keeping of Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) was opened and is still pending. 

Since the exposure of canned lion hunting, the National Council of Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) has raised opposition to the captive lion industry in its entirety and has served in the interest of thousands of captive lions (Panthera leo) for two decades. The NSPCA has lodged its objections to lions in captivity, associated lion hunting, and lion bone exports and continued to stress and raise concerns over animal welfare and the cruelty associated with the developing industry. The industry serves no conservation value and does not contribute towards wild lion conservation. The rapid expansion of lion breeding, captive hunting, and tourism activities, including other spin-off industries, remains highly controversial and widely opposed. The commercial nature of the industry is entrenched within a profit-and-production-based model that exploits these animals at every stage of their lives. Lions are intensively bred, and cubs are removed from the mother and used, sold, or rented for human interaction. Once too big, they are used in lion walk excursions before being sold for further exhibition and breeding or even for captive lion hunts. Their body parts are sold directly or indirectly into the global lion bone trade for use in products of no medicinal value. During the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP17) to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), proposals to uplift the protection of African lions (Panthera leo) to Appendix I were rejected. The decision was that (1) there would be zero annual export quota of lion bone derived from wild lion specimens, and (2) that the Department of Environment, Forestry & Fisheries (DFFE) would establish annual export quotas for trade in bones, bone pieces, bone products, claws, skeletons, skulls, and teeth derived from South African captive breeding facilities. In a High Court application, the NSPCA undertook litigation measures against the DFFE on the basis that the formalisation of an annual lion bone export quota in South Africa following CoP17 of CITES would result in further commercialisation of the captive lion industry whilst ethical, conservation and animal welfare concerns remained excluded. The courts ruled in the NSPCA's favour, ultimately stating that animal welfare must be considered when making conservation and wildlife use policy decisions, not just for lions, but all wildlife, which ultimately impacts broader biodiversity conservation efforts. Landmark court cases such as this have shifted for policy, regulatory and legislative changes to include and recognise wildlife welfare within South Africa. 

Elephant culling is included in the National Norms and Standards, under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, for the Management of Elephants in the Republic of South Africa, as a last-resort option to reduce elephant population size when required to meet protected area objectives. Recent judgments in South African courts have emphasised the importance of considering animal welfare in conservation. We assess the approved method of culling elephant family units in terms of the legal and policy framework in South Africa, as well as considering elephant welfare and well-being. We find that the current culling method is likely to be inhumane and potentially inconsistent with the South African Constitution, as interpreted by the judiciary. In addition, in certain circumstances, culling is illegal in terms of the Protection and Meat Safety Act and contravenes World Organisation for Animal Health and global standards for the slaughter of animals. We recommend considering a moratorium on the culling of elephant family units, as well as of lone bulls, until humane slaughter methods and standard operating procedures that ensure an extremely high probability of instantaneous ("clean") kills, are developed and approved. We recommend an ethics review process for conservation management interventions involving well-being risks to animals, such as is required for animal research. Notwithstanding other imperatives that need consideration, conservation practice should better balance welfare to align with both South African legislation and global norms.

South Africa has allowed the commercial captive breeding and trade of African lions (Panthera leo) and other large felids since the 1990s. However, publicly available information to quantify the extent and nature of this industry, and insight into the diversity of relevant provincial nature conservation statutes, are lacking. Our study reviewed the provincial regulations that govern the captive predator industry in South Africa and used the Promotion of Access to Information Act, Act 2 of 2000 (PAIA) to obtain records held by the nine provincial departments regulating the captive breeding, keeping, and trade of large felids. The information obtained through the PAIA process was highly inconsistent across the provinces, demonstrated the absence of standard operating procedures, and highlighted the convoluted and decentralised permitting systems. The research postulates that varying and sometimes conflicting provincial regulations can lead to the exploitation of legal loopholes and unregulated growth of the industry. In addition, provincial resources are inadequate for authorities to carry out their fundamental mandates of nature conservation. Although the PAIA process was challenging, the information received provided valuable insight into the unregulated nature of this industry and demonstrated major concerns in addressing the necessary challenges associated with animal welfare. Furthermore, with more than half of the PAIA requests either refused, rejected or ignored, the true magnitude and nature of South Africa's commercial captive predator industry cannot be accurately quantified. In the absence of a fully regulated and controlled industry with adequate national norms and standards, we fully support the intention of the South African Government to transition away from the commercial captive predator industry. It is recommended that a gap analysis together with a baseline national audit could provide an effective management tool to responsibly phase out this industry in line with the High-Level Panel's recommendations.

Despite being a self-proclaimed leader in conservation, South Africa's historical approach to the subject has been wrought with problems and deficiencies. This is particularly prevalent in the Department of Forestries, Fisheries and Environment's (DFFE) interpretation of the environmental right in the Constitution, specifically the term "sustainable use"; their consistent denial of a mandate to deal with animal welfare issues and their failure to engage with the animal protection sector, among other issues. Such an approach has resulted in consequences ranging from environmental and biodiversity crises; and inequity to the growth and promotion of unsustainable and ethically problematic industries and practices. More recently, however, owing to recent judgments by the highest court in the country, public pressure and international outcry, among other factors, there have been some encouraging developments. In July 2022, the DFFE released the "Draft White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biodiversity" for public comment. If properly drafted and incorporated, this White Paper has the power for groundbreaking and much-needed legal and policy transformation in the country. It could potentially revolutionise the current paradigm and put South Africa on a path to achieving genuine sustainability and inclusive justice and make the country a true leader in conservation – one which protects not only humans but nonhuman animals and the environment too. This session aims to take a critical look at the Draft White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biodiversity released by the DFFE in July and engage with some of the provisions contained therein through the lens of animal law, together with environmental protection and social justice.

With a footprint in over 20 countries in Africa, the IUCN Green List is more than just a standard. It is the opportunity for protected and conserved areas (PCAs), including other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), to benchmark and validate their performance, close the considerable quality-quantity gap, and for countries to meet the new post-2020 global targets. The Green List Pathway is designed to empower, support, and strengthen protected and conserved areas across Africa and amplify their conservation efforts. The IUCN Green List is a global campaign for successful nature conservation. At its heart is the IUCN Green List Standard, which is the first global standard of best practice for area-based conservation. It aims at increasing and recognising areas achieving ongoing results for people and nature in a fair and effective way. Proposed by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity as a complementary measure for the much-debated "30x30" Target 3 in the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework, it provides a global benchmark for how to meet the environmental challenges of the 21st century, with biodiversity, climate, and livelihood challenges at the forefront. 'Globally consistent, locally relevant' as it is known to be, the IUCN Green List offers locally relevant expert guidance to help achieve fair and effective nature conservation results in PCAs and bring value to communities everywhere. The presentation will illustrate how the IUCN Green List Standard can support PCAs to improve management effectiveness and governance (including equity) and how the standard aligns with other tools, e.g. IMET, SAGE, and OECMs. In conclusion, the presentation will recommend how the Green List Standard could support the monitoring and strengthening of South Africa's PCAs.

Multiple site-level assessment methodologies have been developed to assess the effectiveness of protected and conserved areas. The diversity of tools makes comparisons across methods and collating data for reporting towards global targets very difficult, as there is currently no common language to interpret the results of assessments. The IUCN Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas Standard provides a framework for tracking the effectiveness of protected and conserved areas, and many other assessment methodologies fulfil at least some of the Green List Standard's requirements. With IUCN, UNEP-WCMC recently worked on a crosswalk to determine how several commonly used methodologies relate to the Green List Standard. Currently, the crosswalk has been applied to seven methodologies. The next stages will involve the assessment of other tools. Further work will also be needed to align the crosswalk results with the ongoing process, led by IUCN, to develop the IUCN Green List Standard benchmarking tool (IBEX). Ultimately, this work will inform the development of meaningful global indicators on effectiveness, enabling the post-2020 global biodiversity framework's draft Target 3 to be comprehensively tracked.

Protected areas are the world's largest planned land use, where land is intentionally set aside for conservation. Protected areas are considered cornerstones for in situ biodiversity conservation and a strategy to curb biodiversity loss. Protected areas exist in complex socio-ecological systems, are expected to conserve the ecosystems and species they harbour, and benefit people. Practitioners face questions like 'are we conserving what we say we are?', 'how is the biodiversity doing?' and 'are we doing conservation in the dark?'. Additionally, the contribution of protected areas to human well-being requires understanding and accounting. Managers are expected to demonstrate positive outcomes from public investment in protected areas. For protected areas to deliver on the promise of biodiversity conservation, standards for management, combined with systems to evaluate the effectiveness of actions and the capability to adapt, are essential. More importantly, how are practitioners making decisions to act, or not to act, where to act and with whom, when and why? An investigation of CapeNature's protected area management effectiveness sought to understand the role of Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT-SA) results in the management planning process. A further investigation of the alignment in planning processes highlighted a risk of inconsistent decision-making and misaligned actions. To facilitate consistent robust decision-making and ultimately planning, a decision support framework was adopted as a standard. METT-SA results are useful to report management effectiveness, although practitioners must understand that the METT-SA is not designed to highlight gaps in, for example, a planning process, and results should be interrogated. The application of an appropriate decision support framework helps to facilitate the interface between protected area management and the socio-ecological system for robust decision-making. 

Protected area systems are designed in law and policy toward achieving certain policy objectives. These systems rely on legal frameworks that determine how countries designate, declare, and manage their protected areas. To date, there has been little research on the risks faced by protected area systems in achieving their policy and legal objectives. To this end, this paper aims to identify these risks through the application of the theory of change (ToC), which is internationally recognised as a preferred method to identify key risks to the implementation of policy and legal frameworks. Due to its well-established protected area system and long history in conservation, the South African protected area system is identified as the ideal case country. The application of the ToC method identifies 25 key risks to the South African protected area system. Understanding these risks allows for a better grasp of the potential failure of the system and of possible recommendations to avoid it. For example, if society does not value protected areas and conservation, the entire system is in jeopardy given the need for law and policy to reflect societal values. It is recommended that societal values be clarified and made more explicit in policy. Moreover, operational failures in law enforcement or enforcement of boundaries would work directly against policy objectives. Also, the policy expectation that protected areas be financially viable needs to be reconsidered as it represents a key risk to the permanency of these areas. It is concluded that the current legal and policy framework for protected areas in South Africa is unlikely to achieve its objectives because many of the key risks are already manifesting in practice.

The teleology of concurrent national and provincial legislative competence in South Africa's Constitution has not been adequately investigated, particularly from the perspective of nature conservation and the establishment of protected areas. It is, therefore, questioned whether the concurrent nature conservation competence awarded to the national sphere of government should be equivalent to that awarded to the provinces, or if it precludes the national government from having a greater status than the provinces. It is further questioned whether the provisions of the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003 (NEMPAA) accurately reflect the constitutional weighting, if any, granted to these two spheres of government by this provision. It is concluded that the concurrent national and provincial legislative competence in respect of nature conservation is most likely to be, at least, equally balanced between the two spheres of government. Contrary to this finding, it is noted that the NEMPAA grants national parks a significantly higher conservation status than nature reserves by diminishing the status and scope the provinces had prior to the promulgation of the Act. It is further concluded that, in this instance, provisions of the NEMPAA are most likely to be unconstitutional. It is recommended that these two types of protected areas be consolidated into one category or critically evaluated to correct potentially incorrect categorisation. It is also recommended that the NEMPAA be substantially revised to correct a number of anomalies and illogical provisions.

After 23 years of standard-grant making, the micro-granting conservation trust fund of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) has gone out on a limb. Putting its moolah where its mouth is, the Table Mountain Fund (TMF) is living by its mantra that there is money to be made from fynbos conservation. The TMF's Prosperity Programme aims to ensure that fynbos-based economies are productive and resilient. The objectives of the programme are that more fynbos-based industries are established; innovative financing mechanisms are established; and that people, communities, and organisations living and operating within the CFR are empowered and derive social and economic benefits from fynbos. As such, we have partnered with five local executants to hopefully unlock financial benefits to local communities by means of novel financing approaches which reduce direct risk to conservation enterprises and yet guarantee a return on our investments, albeit partial or in-kind.

The WWF Nedbank Green Trust is an innovative partnership between Nedbank and WWF South Africa which has played a catalysing role in enabling conservation work in South Africa for more than 30 years. With a vision of igniting new ways for people and nature to thrive since 1990, the WWF Nedbank Green Trust has been a funding partner to a diversity of organisations, each developing innovative solutions to problems that have scalable potential. The focus of the funding is on environmental outcomes solutions that can start the process of change at scale, with a strong focus on socio-environmental outcomes. Nedbank provides funding (donations) to the Trust through their Green Affinity Programme where each time a client transacts, Nedbank donates to the Trust. WWF-SA is the Trust's Management Agency providing the capacity, environmental outcomes strategy, and pipeline development. WWF believes that through its strategy, the Trust's strategy, and its network of partner conservation organisations, there is great opportunity to develop solutions that will have a significant positive impact on the future of South Africa. Since 2011, Augustine Morkel has led the WWF Nedbank Green Trust and will provide insights into the topic of the science of environmental conservation outcomes funding. 

A critical challenge for many countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) is the lack of funding to support the development and management of Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs). The SADC TFCA Financing Facility is a regional fund established to contribute toward sustainable funding for SADC TFCAs. As the fund manager for the TFCA Financing Facility, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has made significant progress since its launch in April 2020. This includes setting up Grant Management Systems and policies, an operational manual, recruitment of the Project Management Unit, and the launch of two calls for proposals – the COVID-19 Emergency Response Grant, and the First Open Call for Proposals. To date, the Facility has already allocated €16 million (over R270 million) to 23 projects, at various stages of implementation. This presentation will share an update on progress and lessons learnt since the facility was established in 2020.

The proposal design and engagement with potential funders are important components of fundraising. Key elements of alignment with funder priorities are critical factors in the success of a proposal. This session will explore some basics of funding conservation and examples of what has and hasn't worked. Partnerships are extremely important for fundraising, and these relationships can often be foundational to enabling opportunities. As with developing proposals, identifying the element of alignment with the potential partner is essential – this is key for developing the relationship and the connection. Nurturing this relationship over time, if there is good alignment, will hopefully lead to opportunities to partner down the road. In order to access funding for conservation, one will inevitably need to develop proposals. Proposal development is a mix of creativity and logic: It's critical to find that "hook" for the funder – how does the proposed project align with the funder's priorities; and also essential to be clear and rationale in terms of how the proposal will contribute to addressing the identified challenge. The best chances of success comes if the proposal development process is approached from the funder's point of view, by speaking their language, answering each question and component clearly, and paying careful attention to their instructions. A coherent and consistent proposal makes the reviewers' tasks easier. Finding the common ground between funders' priorities and the priorities of an organisation or proposed projects, and exploring ways to address challenges together, can lead to better results for conservation.

Synchronicity Earth is a charitable organisation based in London, United Kingdom. We work to champion effective approaches and increase funding for Earth's overlooked species and ecosystems and the communities working to protect them. To achieve this, we focus on building partnerships rather than funding one-off projects; invest our time in research to identify priorities for nature protection and restoration that are overlooked and underfunded; and prioritise constant learning from the people and organisations we support, as well as our own supporters and collaborators, to increase our impact. As part of our journey towards a trust-based philanthropic model, we aim to develop strong relationships based on mutual trust with organisations implementing work on the ground. This helps us to better understand the challenges facing our partners and contribute to long-term solutions. We have also developed innovative financing mechanisms to provide stable and growing funding for our partners' work through Pooled Funds and Expendable Endowment Funds. Our Pooled Funds reduce the burden of applying for and reporting on grants for our partners on the ground and facilitate joint learning opportunities between and across partners and funders. Our Expendable Endowment Funds have created an innovative way for donors to support long-term conservation as donations are put to work over the timescale needed to deliver impactful conservation action. In this presentation, we will present our approach to grant-making and relationship-building and discuss the financing mechanisms that support our work.

The Blyde Catchment is located on the border between the Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces of South Africa, starting at the top of the Northern Drakensberg escarpment (a strategic water source area) and flowing down into the Lowveld and Greater Kruger landscape before joining the Olifants River. It is one of the most pristine catchments in the country (Class A). The catchment provides water to multiple downstream communities, one of South Africa's largest citrus areas and the Greater Kruger National Park. The catchment is facing increasing threats to water security from alien invasive plant species, bad land use practices, impacts from historic mining, as well as current illegal mining and climatic impacts. With hundreds of thousands of livelihoods as well as important conservation areas and biodiversity depending on the Blyde system to remain intact, the Kruger 2 Canyons Biosphere (K2C), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Conservation South Africa (CSA) have partnered to explore the feasibility of developing a water fund for the catchment. The partnership is based on the TNC water fund model and is called the Blyde Catchment Investment Programme. The programme will put in place a governance structure constituted of all the major role players (government, private sector, civil society, and community structures). The programme's objectives are to help mobilise investments in catchment restoration and management, identify key intervention practices, as well as explore the feasibility of creating sustainable financial solutions. The programme has gone through a pre-feasibility exercise and is currently conducting detailed feasibility analyses and developing a business case.

South African rhino populations have always been subjected to the threat of poaching, but since circa 2000, South African rhino populations have come under threat from organised crime groups. This rhino poaching pressure is not always seen as part of organised crime activities but is rather locked into the old "poaching" interpretation and seen as only a conservation problem left to conservation agencies and staff to solve. KwaZulu-Natal has, over the past year, been targeted by national syndicates from outside of the province, and with them came a total organised crime onslaught which focuses on specific rhino populations. The rhino crime landscape in KwaZulu-Natal has changed, bringing in different pressures which require fresh assessment and confirmation of whether the present policies are working. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife works with the South African Police Services, State Security Agencies, Non-Government Organisations, and Private Rhino Owners to combat crime impacting KwaZulu-Natal's rhino population. Over the past few years, various strategies and counter-poaching activities have been implemented. There is a need to assess whether these efforts have been effective, the impacts of these measures, and how rhino owners move into the future to secure their rhino populations.

Consumptive use of wildlife for cultural practices is a cause of concern, particularly in the context of threats posed by large-scale, commercial, illegal wildlife trade and multi-national supply chains that cross the continent. There is evidence of pervasive hunting and persistent, continent-wide trafficking in felid and other carnivore skins and parts – and questions arise as to (i) which consumer markets the hunters, traffickers, and traders supply and (ii) the extent to which this consumption and trade occur? With these questions in mind, this study aimed to investigate and characterise evidence for the cultural use of 33 carnivore taxa in 48 African countries. We conducted a mixed methods review and analysis of the records available in nearly 600 published data sources (literature, reports, newspapers, databases) and >800 YouTube™ videos. Cultural use is a complex subject to tackle. Many African cultures have a history of felid use for a variety of purposes and have retained those practices to a greater or lesser extent. We present a geographical overview of the occurrence and context of species use in Africa that will inform future conservation interventions.

Social media data are increasingly used as a source of information in conservation science. Social media content and metadata are useful to study people-nature interactions and how they affect the global biodiversity crisis. During the presentation, I will show how social media data can be used as a novel source of information to investigate threats to and opportunities for the conservation of biodiversity. I will also focus on some of the greatest challenges of using social media data in research, namely data access and data privacy concerns. The conclusion will examine some of the ways forward to mainstreaming the use of social media data in conservation and broader sustainability science..

Wildlife trade, both legal and illegal, has become widely established and extensive on social media platforms. This presents a complex and formidable challenge to addressing harmful and illegal trade but also presents a valuable source of insight into trade activity. This talk will use several recent studies regarding the trade in birds from West and Central Africa on social media to demonstrate and discuss the challenges and opportunities for using social media to understand areas of wildlife trade where data might otherwise be difficult to obtain. The talk will discuss how insights gained from systematically monitoring wildlife trade on social media can inform policy and actions by governments at national and international levels, as well as corporations and civil society organisations, drawing on multiple real-world examples. However, the combination of public and private communication channels provided by social media means that available information varies greatly in content, format and public accessibility, presenting a number of methodological, ethical and interpretational challenges. Researchers must consider the variety of ways social media is used to facilitate wildlife trade and make the most of opportunities to triangulate across multiple information sources to contextualise online activity and establish a holistic picture of wildlife trade.

Hidden among popular dance-off videos, viral memes, and virtual shopping carts lies an illegal online trade in wildlife species such as elephants, tigers, pangolins, and birds. With the cloak of anonymity and ease of connecting with other users worldwide, wildlife traffickers can identify interested buyers and complete transactions using everyday apps and services. Desired for their parts as ornaments, fashion, food, and medicine, or as live pets, and fuelled further by the promotion of exotic pet ownership on social media, wildlife populations have been decimated by this illicit activity. Fortunately, in 2018 a Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online, with support from the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC), and the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), was launched, bringing together the online technology sector to reduce the illegal wildlife trade. Currently comprising 47 tech companies, including Alibaba, eBay, Facebook, Google, TikTok, and Tencent, the Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online has reportedly blocked or removed over 11 million posts and listings of illegal wildlife for sale. This collaboration aims to unite the tech industry to standardise prohibited wildlife policies, train staff to detect illicit wildlife products better, enhance automated detection filters, and educate and empower users to report suspicious listings. At the core of this effort is sharing learning and best practices across company platforms to avoid duplication of efforts and prevent wildlife traffickers from shifting activities from one platform to another.

Species checklist and locality data are fundamental for conservation management. Historically collected field data, more recent data of digital origin, and data-sharing platforms provide useful sources for collating species locality data. However, biodiversity datasets come in different formats, including different information, units of measure and inconsistent and sometimes unverifiable naming systems, making it necessary to standardise biodiversity data to make it more useful. Although there are many sources of data, there are challenges to making biodiversity data accessible, including insufficient capacity and skills in many institutions to collect, process and curate data, and a lack of willingness to share data. However, even when data are shared, many online digital data sources do not provide an easy option for download by protected area. Additionally, locality data for sensitive species, which are at risk of being harvested, are obscured in online databases and require specific applications for access to data, including the signing of data-sharing agreements. Further, although many software tools are available, data-entry-ready software is not readily available for conservation organisation staff with limited technical skills to collate these heterogeneous data and create distribution maps and checklists for protected areas. We outline the need for using taxonomic backbones, standardising data and the utility of data sources, such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and iNaturalist in particular, in this process, including for accessing data on sensitive species. We make recommendations for the attributes needed in relational databases, e.g. unique species numbers and recognised names, for collating species data. We also outline steps that can be taken, including where and how to access data, to enable easier collation of South African biodiversity data to inform conservation decisions.

According to the State of Rivers Report (2017-2018), 15% of South African rivers were considered in a good state, with little to no pristine rivers remaining. Human activities such as mining, agriculture, abstraction, forestry, and urban run-off directly impact freshwater systems. These threats are compounded by fluctuating water temperatures from climate change, leaving no system unimpacted by our actions. Macro-invertebrates in freshwater environments play a crucial role in ecosystem functioning, and yet many species remain undescribed in southern Africa. Many of these known and undescribed species face extinction with little to no direct legal protection, despite the poor ecological state of freshwater ecosystems. Therefore, this book serves as a field guide to the commonly encountered freshwater macroinvertebrates of southern Africa, which play a critical role in freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems and aid ecologists, fishermen, and enthusiasts in understanding these organisms. The book focuses on aquatic invertebrates and further includes several semi-aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates that may be encountered in the field. Most taxa in this guide are discussed at the family level, and identifications are limited to what is observable to the naked eye. Field practitioners generally identify specimens at the family level, and the identification to lower taxonomic levels (genus or species) often requires microscopic investigation that is not practical for field identification. There are introductory notes on the diversity, distribution, life cycle, and taxonomic placement of each family within the order. Dichotomous keys are not provided in this guide; however, distinguishing features between families are provided in the introduction to the family trees and discussed on each family page, providing additional insight into the identification of common freshwater macroinvertebrates. Some taxa were not included (e.g. Polycentropodidae, Ephemerythidae and Polychaeta) as collection was not possible before publication. Despite this, an overview of macroinvertebrates is presented in brief.

Climate variability and change threaten global biodiversity. Species distribution models are a tool that can be used to assess the potential impacts of climate change on species ranges. Syritta (Syrphidae: Eristalinae) occupy key niches and provides key ecosystem services such as pollination and nutrient cycling. There is little documentation on the distribution, vulnerability and conservation status of Afrotropical Syritta. The responses of Syritta to climate change are also unexplored. In this study, the known occurrence of two Syritta species and bioclimatic data were used as predictors for the analysis of core habitats and potential range shifts in species distributions within South Africa. The ensemble modelling approach based on two models and two future climate change scenarios under representative concentration pathways (RCP 6.0 and RCP 8.5) for two time frames (2050 and 2070) were applied. Three model algorithms (maximum entropy, random forest and generalized linear models) were used with three assessment matrices (TTS, AUC, COR) to identify the most important predictor variables. The analyses show a climate-driven range expansion and reduction in the distribution of the two Syritta species for both 2050 and 2070. We demonstrate that rainfall and temperature in the coldest months may influence the range limits in different ways. This study is a first step towards applying biodiversity models to support long-term monitoring, conservation decisions and planning with consideration of climate change impacts on Syritta species in South Africa. It is a contribution to the implementation of strategies to meet targets in Goal A of the biodiversity framework of the UN Convention on Biological diversity. We recommend a complementary analysis of spatial structures to emphasize or refute the importance of areas expected to face suitability decline within South Africa to inform potential conservation strategies for the Syritta. 

The Maloti-Drakensberg mountain range is part of the Great Escarpment, which is the edge of the interior plateau of southern Africa and a rich biodiversity hotspot with high levels of endemism. However, studies on aquatic invertebrate dynamics in this region have been limited. The region, being a strategic water source area, boasts one of the highest densities of standing water bodies in the form of rock pools and Afromontane tarns. The current study collected macroinvertebrates and assessed environmental parameters of 70 water bodies (between 1127–2972 masl) from Golden Gate Highlands National Park to the southern Drakensberg during the prolonged rainy season of March and April 2022. We hypothesised that the community composition between tarns and rockpools, as well as the biotic diversity, will be different, given the differences in their hydroperiod. Afromontane tarns macroinvertebrate assemblages were dominated by widespread taxa including aquatic beetles (Dytiscidae and Hydrophilidae), bugs (Notonectidae and Corixidae), and odonates larvae (Aeshnidae and Libelullidae). Comparatively, rock pools were dominated by large branchiopods, dipterans, and hydraenids beetles. As expected, Afromontane tarns had greater diversity compared to rock pools, but there was no significant difference, in terms of community assemblages, between tarns in different regions or altitudes. We conclude that macroinvertebrate assemblages, apart from hydroperiod and habitat complexity, were driven by the sampling period where high dominance of predatory taxa resulted in a reduction of diversity. Although the region had a prolonged rainy season, macroinvertebrates species composition, particularly temporary ponds specialists, was neither affected nor delayed.

Increased above-ground biomass linked to elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels will result in a 20–61% increase in the woody cover of African savannas. Understanding how biodiversity responds to these changes will inform conservation initiatives. Here we model the response to spider diversity across an elevational transect across the Soutpansberg mountain range in Limpopo, South Africa, that includes four significant plant physiognomies: savanna, grasslands, forests, and thickets. Spiders were sampled using pitfall traps during the hot and dry (September) and hot and wet seasons (January) over six years. The responses of 461 assemblages (256 species) to habitat structure, temperature, soil, available habitat, aspect, and seasonality (humidity) were modelled using generalized linear mixed models for richness and abundance and model-based multivariate analysis for species composition. The best models included seasonality (humidity) and woody cover. Spider richness and abundance decreased with increased woody cover. Seventy-five per cent of pure and reliable indicator taxa associated with woody cover decreased in abundance as woody cover increased. Indicator taxa that increased with woody cover were generalist species with large global distributions that included an exotic species. The importance of maintaining open savannas through grazing and fire is highlighted by the large number of endemic and undescribed species associated with this biome and the lower diversity and threat of exotic spider invasions related to areas that experience woody thickening.

Ichnestoma dealbata is one of 11 new species described in a revision of the beetle subtribe Ichnestomatina. Adults of the subtribe are thought to emerge from underground after substantial summer rainfall events and to remain active for only a few days afterwards. Females are generally unable to fly, so populations tend to be locally endemic, with restricted distributions. Ichnestoma dealbata has been described from a single locality near Calitzdorp. This paper reports on the discovery of the species at a second locality in the Little Karoo and speculates on possible emergence cues. From 2008, ad hoc biodiversity observations were made on and around a biodiversity stewardship site near Oudtshoorn. Many of these observations were posted on the online citizen science platforms, the Virtual Museum (https://vmus.adu.org.za/) and iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Ichnestoma dealbata was first photographed on the Oudtshoorn site in 2019 and again in 2021. Identification of this and another beetle species known from one locality, were made on iNaturalist. In 2022, live I. dealbata individuals of both sexes were observed, and behavioural observations were made. Flying males, aggressive interactions between males, and copulation were seen hours after a localised, intense hailstorm. Four millimetres of rain were measured 200 m away from the emergence site however, a more significant rainfall event occurred further away in the catchment. This suggests that environmental cues other than rainfall amount can trigger emergence, and further research on this is required. Climate change predictions for the Little Karoo indicate a high probability of warming, but rainfall predictions have a high degree of uncertainty. Species such as I. dealbata, with life cycles reliant on the timing and intensity of specific weather events, lend themselves to climate change research. Citizen science has played a role in expanding our understanding of this little-known species, and further information on distribution and emergence could be obtained by increasing awareness through local groups such as farmers' associations and the Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers programme. However, the use of public online platforms to store records could increase the risk of illegal collection. 

Cycads are the most endangered species in the world. They are worth millions of dollars annually in illegal markets, being in demand for traditional medicine and as ornamental plants in gardens. Wood's cycad (Encephalartos woodii) is considered Extinct in the Wild, making it one of the rarest cycads in the world. The cycad was discovered 127 years ago in the Ongoye Forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The only specimen ever discovered was removed to the Durban Botanical Garden, and suckers propagated in other botanical gardens around the world. However, these specimens are all genetically identical males. Hence, unless a female partner is found, it may never naturally reproduce again. Over the years, many expeditions have sought to find another specimen, specifically a female, so that the species can be brought back from the brink of extinction but so far without success. Many sections of the Ongoye Forest, to which the species is endemic, are relatively inaccessible, making the search difficult. Thus there is a possibility that a specimen may exist in the more remote parts of the forest. We conducted an aerial survey of sections of the forest using a DJI Matrice 210 drone and Micasense Rededge MX multispectral sensor. The search area for the drone was refined after a manned aerial survey. Two gridded surveys (15 ha) were conducted on sections of the forest. The resulting multispectral imagery was stitched together using Pix4DMapper. The mosaiced imagery was inspected for signs of cycads using various spectral combinations and plant structures. Whilst a partner cycad has not yet been found, the search continues. Drone technology is providing useful information that can enhance and streamline the search and could also be used for other conservation initiatives. 

According to the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species, cycads (Encephalartos spp) are currently the most threatened living organisms. Unfortunately, 78% of South Africa's Encephalartos species are threatened with extinction, compared to the global average of 62%. Of these, 31% are classified as Critically Endangered, compared to the global average of 17%. Another four species are Endangered, and ten other species are classified as Vulnerable. The majority of these species are threatened by collection for horticultural and ornamental purposes. In South Africa, the harvest of any cycad from the wild is strictly prohibited. In an attempt to protect cycads, a biodiversity management plan (BMP) for eleven Critically Endangered and four Endangered Encephalartos species was developed and gazetted for implementation in 2017. Objective four of the BMP addresses piloting the use of microdot technology to mark wild cycad populations in order to improve their protection in situ and deter poachers. Microdots are microscopic discs containing unique information about an object, and they are reportedly effective at preventing theft. In addition, they play a vital role in the recovery and return of stolen goods. Uniquely coded microdots were developed for Encephalartos eugene-maraisii, E. horridus, E. middelburgensis, and E. msinganus. To date, two priority species have been marked in situ with the unique microdots developed specifically for their populations including E. eugene-maraisii and E. horridus. A total of 201 individuals of E. eugene-maraisii (n = 248) have been marked in Limpopo, whilst several populations of E. horridus in the Eastern Cape comprising 125 individuals (n = 145) and 17 (n = 23), and 11 (n = 23) individuals all located on different properties. Encephalartos middelburgensis in Mpumalanga will be marked this financial year. Finally, E. msinganus is inaccessible and, therefore, cannot be marked.

The Convention on Biological Diversity recognises three biodiversity components - ecosystem-, species- and genetic diversity. Genetic diversity reflects the degree of within-species variation and is important for species' adaptation and ecosystem functioning. We analysed the genetic structure and gene flow patterns in the suni antelope (Nesotragus moschatus) and the red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) to formulate genetic management guidelines for these understudied species. We generated mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences and microsatellite genotypes of suni antelope from northern KwaZulu-Natal (n=40), the Zambezi Delta (n=19) and Mnemba Island (n=12), along with DNA sequences from GenBank (n=4). Red hartebeest samples included: Augrabies NP (n=10), Mokala NP (n=19), Karoo NP (n=30), and Golden Gate Highlands NP (n=29) and sequences of six hartebeest subspecies from GenBank (n=192). Southern African suni represents a single lineage distinct from East Africa. There is evidence of isolation between northern KZN and Mozambique. We recommend recognising two distinct Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) in East and southern Africa and managing southern Africa as two to three management units (MUs). Red hartebeest have been translocated between nature reserves and national parks in South Africa, yet there is evidence of multiple divergent mtDNA lineages in the species' range in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana, and both DNA marker types suggest limitations on gene flow. The relationship between red hartebeest and Lichtenstein's hartebeest should be investigated in depth; the clear morphological and geographic distinction between these subspecies is not reflected in the complex phylogeographic pattern based on mtDNA. Our preliminary conclusion is that red hartebeest comprises at least one distinct ESU and multiple MUs. In order to have viable populations for the future, conservation management strategies must preserve genetic integrity and conserve large effective population sizes in multiple populations. 

Managing priority species such as rhinos requires intensified daily monitoring and security. Tracking devices are widely used in the conservation of a wide range of species, and are particularly useful for species with an elusive nature. Conventional methods of attaching such devices to rhinos include ankle collars, ear tags, and horn implants. Ear tags have been reported to tear off quite easily, whilst ankle collars can lead to abrasions causing serious injuries and sometimes even mortalities. Horn implants are the most successful yet are limited to animals with horns large enough to accommodate transmitters. Since the recent rhino-poaching onslaught began, many rhino reserves maintain their populations dehorned, ruling out the use of horn implants. We investigated the viability of using horn caps to monitor black rhino movement in a protected area in northern Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We fitted 12 devices to sub-adult and adult black rhinos between July 2020 and September 2021 and monitored the success of these devices. The caps were glued to the posterior horn stumps immediately after a dehorning exercise. More recently, a campaign involving 15 rhinos with a slightly modified version of the cap containing different technologies was pursued. We learnt that size does matter, as our devices fitted better on adult rhinos with a larger horn stump. Our devices proved to hold no health risks for the rhinos other than the immobilisation process. Using equine hoof epoxy to glue the devices onto the horn stump was very effective and long-lasting. We show that the combination of LoRa technology and horn caps is an effective, reliable, and safe method for monitoring rhinos at a fine scale.

The anthropogenic pressure on South African grasslands to meet the needs of the burgeoning human population has exposed them to extensive permanent transformation and degradation. Indicator species, such as the red-winged francolin (Scleroptila levaillantii), whose population density is correlated to grazing intensity and burning frequency, may identify changes in the condition of natural sourveld grassland ecosystems in South Africa. A reliable method was developed using pointing dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) to count cryptic gamebirds in the Greater uMngeni Vlei Expansion Area, KwaZulu-Natal Midlands, South Africa, where the route through a survey site was flexible. A variation to the existing distance sampling technique was proposed where the dog Global Positioning System (GPS) track was the transect line. Trials were conducted between August 2020 and October 2021, using pointing dogs fitted with GPS devices to establish the environmental conditions that affect detectability. Surveys were conducted to establish the population densities and territories of red-winged francolin. The search area was calculated from the detection distance based on nominal wind speed and the GPS track. Of the environmental variables monitored, only nominal wind speed significantly influenced detection distance, where an increase of one-knot wind strength resulted in an increase in detection distance by 0.64 m. This enabled a search area considerate of influential environmental conditions to be derived. These methods address the bias introduced by varying scenting conditions and the situation where known coveys in an area of known size remain undetected. Since the search area is independent of time spent searching, the bias introduced by varying physical aptitude is mitigated. These techniques may be used by citizen scientists to establish the abundance of red-winged francolin. Where the population densities are seen to decline, land managers, conservationists, and ecologists should review grazing pressure and burning frequency and adjust accordingly.